1. The term 'concept' has similar meaning to 'construct'. A concept is an abstraction from observed event: it is usually a word that represents the similarities or common aspects of subject or events that are otherwise different from one another, example are chair, cat, dog, tree, sheep, gas, solid, liquid etc. These words describe common aspects of things that are otherwise diverse. The purpose of a concept is to simplify thinking by including a number of events under one general heading. Some concepts of events and close to the events they represent. For instance, the concept of tree may be easily illustrated by pointing to specific trees around us. Also the meaning of the concept dog is grasped because we can point to dogs around us. The concept is an abstraction of the characteristics of dogs that are more or less 'heavy' or 'light'. "Mass", "energy", and "force" are concepts used by physical scientists. They are of course more abstract than concepts such as "weight", "height", and "length". "Achievement" is an abstraction formed from the observation of certain behaviours in children. These behaviours are associated with the mastery of "learning" of school task like reading ability, formation of words, solving mathematical problems, drawing pictures etc. The various observed behaviours are put together and expressed in a word like "achievements" and "intelligence". "Aggressiveness", "conformity", and "honesty" are all concepts used to express varieties of human behaviour of interest to behavioural scientists.

Whereas a construct is a concept that has the added meaning of having been deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special purpose. "Intelligence" is a concept, an abstraction from the observation of presumably intelligent and non-intelligent behaviours. But as a scientific construct, "intelligence" means both more or less than it may be as a concept. It means that scientists consciously and systematically use it in two ways, first, it enters into theoretical schemes and is related in various ways to other constructs. We may say, for example, the school achievement is in part a function of intelligence and motivation.

Secondly, "intelligence" is so defined and specified that it can be observed and measured. We can make observations of the intelligence of the children by administering x-intelligence text to them, or we can ask teachers to tell us the relative degree of intelligence of their pupils/students, (Kerlinger, 1973).

2a(i) Historical Research
Research in this case is based on oral evidence: (Monly, 1978) records such as dairies, case history, autobiography, logbooks etc. Books; journals, magazines, etc are also useful documents. The purpose of an historical research is to obtain a better understanding of the present, through the evaluation of the past and intelligent prediction of the future. An historical research aids in avoiding past errors and predicting the future and also refreshes ones memory on what is known and unfolds what is not known. There are two main sources of collecting historical data. There are primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are relics and other things that have direct physical relationships e.g. observations and participation. A secondary source deals with bibliographies, references, materials and documents recorded by someone else. These are less reliable than the primary sources. In this type of research approach, statistical hypotheses are rarely used.

2a(ii) Survey type
Survey type of research can also be called a descriptive research. This type of research is based on information gathered through questionnaires, interview (oral, written, structured, constructed, etc.), inventories, rating scales, self-report, and observations. Descriptive research is used to find the meaning and obtain an understanding of the present condition. The results obtained through this procedure can be statistically analyzed.

2a(iii) Experimental (Empirical) Type
Experimental type of research involves conducting experiments for research process. The researcher will find out the effect of manipulating some variables by providing various treatments and later compared with an untreated group called control group. The results obtained through this procedure are usually statistically analyzed. Experimental research is a precise research technique designed to solve specific educational problems. It is perhaps the most reliable type of research that determines situations. In conducting experimental research, three types of variables are usually taken into consideration. They are dependable, independent, and intervening variables.

2(b) Five (5) characteristics of Educational Research
i. It is empirical;
ii. It is Theoretical;
iii. It is cumulative;
iv. It is non-Ethical;
v. It is verifiable.

Empirical
It is empirical because it involves the collection of data that can be used to draw conclusion. Conclusions are not based on what the author feels or think but on concrete evidence – derived from the data collected by careful observation of the events being investigated.

Theoretical
Education research, as a scientific research, also aims at the building of a relevant theory that can explain certain phenomena among variables in educational situations.

Cumulative
Each scientific investigation tries to build upon existing facts and theories and helps in refining and extending the existing principles.

Non-ethical
It does not consider issues. That is, scientific investigations do not seek answers to questions such as whether an action is right or wrong. They attempt to find the logical explanation for any action and avoid value judgement.

Verifiable
A scientific investigation leads to verifiable results. The process adopted in any scientific investigation is such that it can be replicated by other researchers who invariably can get the same results, (Koleoso, 1999), all other things being equal.

Research topic:
"Factors Affecting Principals' Effectiveness in Secondary Schools".
i. Identifying a researchable problem area, or need worth investigating;
ii. reviewing or related literature to the research topic;
iii. formulating research questions and hypotheses; this is by formulating testable and measureable hypotheses and define the basic concepts and variables;
iv. Designing a study to collect pertinent data.
This is by stating the underlying assumptions which will govern the interpretation of results;
v. Collecting pertinent data for answering the research questions and testing the hypothesis;
vi. Selecting the subjects using appropriate sampling procedures:
This is by analyzing the data collected using appropriate statistics, the answer the research question and testing the hypotheses of the study;
vii. Control and/or manipulate relevant variables and established criteria to evaluate the outcome, identify what variable can be measured and how to measure them;
Viii. Drawing necessary inferences or conclusions based on the results of the analysis;
ix. Specify the data collection procedure that is questionnaires, test construction and administration, interview and observations;
x. Select the data analysis methodology (this could be through manual or computer);
xi. Evaluate results, draw conclusions, and make recommendations (Koleoso, 1999).

i. Research Report and Research Proposal
Research proposal is the plan undertaken by a research in carrying out his research work. The research proposal provides a basis for the evaluation of the work and demonstrates clearly that the researchers know what he wants to do to arrive at the solution of the problems at hand. It affords him also a systematic plan or procedure to follow.

While research report is the written work of a research proposal. It is the communication of the results to other researchers.

ii. Limitation and Delimitation of Study
In the educational research, there is normally the anticipation of likely problems in future events due to uncontrollable intervening factors (variables). Research exercise is not left out in this regard. The researcher is to state in the research proposal, those problems he or she anticipates, that will in one way or the other impede the progress of his research work. To state these problems is not enough, the researcher needs to also state what she or he intends to do to reduce the magnitude of the problems or to eliminate them completely. This is known as the limitations of the study.

Whereas, delimitation describes the scope of the study. In other words, the researcher describes the boundaries of his research under the sub-heading – Delimitation.

iii. Research Question and Research Hypothesis
Research questions are those questions asked in order to locate answers to the research problem(s). Research questions usually break down research problem(s) into specifics. They convert the problems into questions and in such a way that they are verifiable. In fact, the statement of the research problem in a question for is regarded as the research question.

Whereas research hypothesis is a tentative answer to the problem of the research under investigation. It is however, an answer which has no evidence supporting it until a full investigation is carried out. The research hypothesis may therefore be seen as opinion statement. For example, a question is asked and you answer it. Your answer may or may not be different from other peoples' answer to the same question. If the question is connected with research at hand, your answer becomes your hypothesis and a starting point for the investigation of the research problem.

The main difference between hypothesis and the answer you many obtain at the end of the investigation is that hypothesis is expressing what you think ought to be and the latter is a categorical statement based on research findings. As a general rule, the hypothesis may or may not be supported by research findings. The main objective of hypothesis is to provide a starting point for investigating a research problem and at the same time to direct and guide the investigation. That is to make sure that the research does not deviate from the purpose of the study.

iv. Research Instrument and Statistical Procedure
Research instrument is a survey, questionnaire, test, scale, rating or tool designed to measure the variable(s), characteristic(s), or information of interest from research subjects.

While statistical procedures are methods which are essential for researchers to carry out their findings in order to summarize and interpret their data well and communicate their findings. Statistical procedure is used in order to assess the conclusions reached.

v. Population and Sample
Population refers to the group of measurements that are of interest. i.e the aggregate of units to be covered. This may be people, objects, materials, measurements or thing. Populations could be finite or infinite. When the population is not too large and can be easily counted then it is finite i.e. number of students in a school, number of candidates that wrote an examination etc.

However, when the numbers of a population are so large say like the grains of sand or number of women in West Africa, we say it is infinite.

While sample is a part or sub-sect of a population. It is any subgroup or sub aggregate drawn by some appropriate methods from a population. The sample is usually the portion of the population appropriately selected for observation.

i. Research Design
The research design is the plan, structure, and strategy operated by the research in order that the research question can be answered. It provides guidelines which direct the researcher towards solving the research problem and it may vary depending on the nature of the problem being studied. Also consideration regarding limitations posed by time, money, and availability of particular study data is an important factor in determining research design for a particular study.

ii. Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques are methods employed by researcher in the selection of a sample that will be representative. However, regardless of the specific technique chosen, the basic steps taken to sample a population include:
i. identification of the population;
ii. determination of the required sample size;
iii. selection of the sample.

There are four basic sampling techniques. These are: random sampling, stratified sampling, clustered sampling and systematic sampling.

iii. Instrumentation
Researchers often strive to establish relationships between various constructs that are usually not directly measurable or observable. An indicator of such a construct will have to be developed, or adopted. Such indicators show that data to be gathered and hence how it will be gathered. Thus, instrumentation in research methodology is the process of developing, testing and using the device (instrument). It is the cause of action in carrying out the research.

iv. Data Collection
The data must be collected carefully to ensure its quality. Bias and error must be avoided. Again, there is need to plan before data collection is commenced. How the data will be organized and presented should be also be determined.

The use of table, figures and charts are essential in organizing and summarizing data.

v. Data Analysis
Is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical procedures, many times analysis becomes an ongoing iterative process where data is continuously collected and analyzed almost simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze for patterns in observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye, Robinson, 2004). The form of the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative approach taken (field study, ethnography content analysis, oral, history, biography, unobtrusive research) and the form of the data (field notes, documents, audiotape, videotape).

6(a) Variable
Variable is defined as a property that can take on different values. It is a symbol to which values are assigned. For example, individuals in a class may differ in sex, age, intelligence, height, etc. These properties are variables.

6(b) Five (5) common variables applied to educational research include:

Independent Variable
An independent variable is a variable that the researcher manipulates or controls in order to ascertain its relationship to observed phenomenon. An independent variables may be called a predictor variable because it can predict or is responsible for the status of the other variables. Put in different way, an independent variable is the variable which is presumed to be the cause of the dependent variable.

ii. Dependent Variable
This is a variable that appears, disappears or changes as the researcher introduces, removes or changes the independent variable. Thus, the value of dependent variable depends on that of the independent variable. For example, when comparing the effects of two teaching methods on students' learning achievements, the teaching methods are the independent variables while learning achievement is the dependent variable.

iii. Continuous Variable
This is the type of variable which can take on any value over a range of physical value. Between two values there are an infinite number of other values. These variables reflect at least a rank order.

iv. Discrete Variable
A discrete variable is one which can take only a finite set of values, implying that fractional values are usually not allowed. These variables are generated by counting process usually in whole numbers i.e. the number of goals scored in a football match, the number of teachers in a school, the number of boys and girls etc.

v. Categorical Variables
These belong to a kind of measurement where objects are assigned to a subclass or subset. The sub-class are distinct and non-overlapping. All objects put into the same category are considered to have the same characteristics.

YEAR: 2011 RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
PDE 708
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) Distinguish between Research and Educational Research
(b) Briefly describe the following
i. The independent variable
ii. The dependent variable
iii. Intervening variables
iv. Attribute variables

2. (a) List and describe the characteristics of educational research.
(b) Distinguish between the terms "variables" and variance in educational research.

3. (a) List the various sources of research topic
(b) Identify a research topic in education and break it down into appropriate stages of conducting it and submission of a report.

4. Explain what is expected to be discussed under the following sub-headings:
i. Background to the problem
ii. Research questions and hypothesis
iii. Definition of terms
iv. Review of Literature
v. Instrumentation
vi. Sampling

5. Briefly explain the following methods of research
i. Descriptive method
ii. Survey Method
iii. Experimental Method
iv. Causal – comparative method
v. Quasi-experimental method

6. (a) Mention and explain any FIVE (5) criteria of a good research Problem.
(b) Mention and discuss the uses of research in education.

1(a) Distinguish between Research and Educational Research
Research is a systematic study of a problem with a view to advancing the frontiers of human knowledge. Research may also be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and reporting of controlled observations with a view to arrive at the development of generalization, principles, theories or explanation of phenomena. Whereas, educational research refers to a variety of methods, in which individuals evaluate different aspects of education including (but not limited to) student learning, teaching methods, teacher training and classroom dynamics.

Educational researchers have come to the consensus that; educational research must be conducted in a vigorous and systematic way. Characteristics of education research are:
(i) An attempt to solve problem
(ii) Involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
(iii) Carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested
(iv) Emphasizes the development of generalization, principles or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and or control.
(vi) Based on observable experiences or empirical evidence

(b) Distinguish between the terms "variables" and variance in educational research.

2(a) Listing and describing the characteristics of educational research are as follows:
(i) It is empirical
(ii) It is cumulative
(iii) It is theoretical
(iv) It is verifiable
(v) It is non-ethical

(i) Empirical
Educational research involves the collection of data that can be used to draw conclusions. Conclusions are not based on the author feels or think but on concrete evidence derived from the data collected by careful observation of the events being investigated.

(ii) Cumulative
Educational research each scientific investigation tries to build upon existing facts and theories and helps in refining and extending principles.

(iii) Theoretical
Educational research, as a scientific research, also aims at the building of a relevant theory than explain certain phenomena among variables in educational situations.

(iv) Verifiable
A scientific investigation leads to verifiable results. The process adopted in any scientific investigation is such that it can be replicated by other researchers who invariably can get the same results, (Koleoso, 1999), all other things being equal.

(v) Non-ethical
It does not consider issues. That is, scientific investigations do not seek answers to questions such as whether an action is right or wrong. They attempt to find the logical explanation for any action and avoid value judgment.

2(b) Distinguishing between the terms 'Variables' and Variance in educational research.
A variable is defined as a property that can take on different values. It is a symbol to which values are assigned. It refers to a property whereby the members of a group or set differ from one another. Individuals in a class may differ in sex, age, intelligence, height, weight etc these properties are variables. Variables could also vary in quality and quantity. Whereas a constant on the other hand do not assume different values.

Whereas Variance is a measure of how far apart or spread out the actuality of an event or a set of number, in particular, the variance is one of the moments of a distribution. In this context, it forms part of a systematic approach to distinguishing between probability distributions. Variance can also been seen as a parameter describing in part either the actual probability distribution of an observed population of numbers or the theoretical probability distribution of a not fully observed population of numbers. Thus, in educational research hypothesized relationship can be observed thoroughly and effectively by controlling all sources of variance i.e extraneous variance, systematic variance, and error variance.

3(a) i. Professional Literature
ii. Theory
iii. Personal experience
iv. Previous studies
v. Profession contact
vi. Academic Adviser/Project Supervisor

3(b) Identifying a research topic in education and breaking it down into appropriate stages of conducting it and submission of a report.

Topic: Factors affecting principals effectiveness in secondary schools in Abia State

Having taken the topic or problem above, the researcher starts by developing the essence and benefits of the research into chapter one as follows:
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Purpose of the study
1.3 Statement of the problem
1.4 Significance of the study
1.5 Major assumption
1.6 hypothesis or Research question
1.7 Scope and limitation of study

Chapter two, the researcher performs a thorough review of related literature

Chapter three, the researcher design and state the methodology for data collection and analysis. In this instance, the following issues are described namely:
(i) Research Design;
(ii) Population, Sampling and Sampling techniques;
(iii) Instrument (Construction and Administration);
(iv) Validity and Reliability of Instrument.

In chapter four, the researchers extract or collect data from the field and organize them for analysis. After analysis, the information derived are analyzed, interpreted and explained or discussed in relation to the hypothesis or research questions earlier postulated.

Finally in chapter 5, with the data, information and interpretation of chapter 4, conclusions are drawn with the regard to the hypothesis/research questions, and recommendations are then put forward.

(i) Background to the Problem
After choosing your research area, you are expected to give cogent reasons for deciding to work in this area. This area is of extreme vital as it is the pillar upon which you will build subsequent work. You should advance adequate reasons for choosing the topic. If it was born out of the shortcomings of previous work or to further knowledge in the area, you will need to explain. You will need to think deeply on how your work and the previous ones will throw more light on the problem area or lead to new knowledge. Background to the problem should discuss all the variables in the study and shed light on the problems and its nature.

(ii) Research Questions and Hypothesis
The problem of the research is now made specific through research questions or hypothesis. The formulation of hypothesis clarifies further the nature of the problem and the logic underlying the investigation. Hypothesis also give direction to the data gathering process.

Research Hypothesis is a tentative answer to the question being investigated. It is an informed or educated guess that is based upon prior research to be subjected to the process of verification or disconfirmation. Hypothesis are often started in a NULL FORM "since it is the null hypothesis that will be subjected to statistical test.

(iii) Definition of Terms
It is not everybody that will come in contact with your work that will be familiar with the areas of study. You should therefore define terms and concepts as you used them in the study. Every unusual terms must be defined to avoid their being misinterpreted. All variables, terms or methods of obtaining data that are subject to ambiguity must equally be defined. They should be define in your own words and as you used them in your study.

(iv) Review of Literature
The main purpose is to hinge your study to an existing theory in education. Hardly is there any study that is completely new. A background theory gives basis for your study. There are number of theories to which you can think your studies i.e Bruner, Piaget, Gague, Deurtsch etc.

The theoretical framework sets the theoretical base for the research. The other parts of the review of literature often relate the current research to what had gone before it. When the writing of recognized authorities and previous research are summarized and presented, it lays credence to the fact that research knows much about the current research in terms of what is known and unknown about the subject.

(v) Instrumentation
Researchers often strive to establish relationship between various constructs that are usually not directly measurable or observable. An indicator of such a construct will have to be developed, or adopted. Such indicator shows what data to be gathered and hence how it will be gathered.

The researcher will therefore describe the instrument in detail. It should be stated clearly whether the instrument is developed, adopted or adapted. In either case, the source and modifications made must be explained. The sources must be acknowledged. If developed, the process of development must be given.

(vi) Sampling
The researchers have to define the population from which you plan to select the sample or subjects of your study. Variables often included in this consideration are: age, grade level, socio-economic status, gender race, IQ, mental age, academic achievement level etc.

You should also specify the number of subjects to be selected from the population and how they will be selected. Random selection is advised but where this is not possible the reasons for using other method must be stated.

(i) Descriptive Method
As the name indicates describes systematically a situation or an area of interest factually and accurately, e.g population census studies, public opinion surveys, fact-finding surveys, task analysis studies, questionnaire and interview studies, observation studies, job descriptions, etc.

(ii) Survey Method
Survey research method implies that you study large and small populations (or universe) by selecting and studying samples chosen from the populations to discover the relative incidence, distribution, and inter relations of sociological and psychological variables surveys covered by this definition are often called sample surveys. Probably because survey research developed as a separate research activity, along with the development and improvement of sampling procedures. Survey research is considered to be a branch of social scientific research, which immediately distinguishes survey research from the status survey.

(iii) The Experimental Method
This investigates possible cause and effect relationships by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more control groups not receiving the treatment.

(iv) Casual-Comparative Method
Investigating the extent and possible cause and effect relationships by observing some existing consequence and searching back through the data for plausible casual factors, for example, you may want to identify factors related to the "drop-out" problem in a particular school, using data from record over the period of say twenty years, or to identify possible causes of students poor performance in external/public examinations, (e.g WAEC, NECO, SSCE, etc) in general or in any particular subject of interest.

(v) Quasi-Experimental Method
Approximates the conditions of the true experiment in a setting which does not allow the control and/or manipulation of all relevant variables. The researcher must clearly understand what compromises exist in the internal and external validity of its design and proceed within these limitations. Most so-called field experiments, operational research and even the more sophisticated forms of action research attempt to get at the casual factors in real life setting, of the effectiveness of any method or treatment condition n where random assignment of subjects to methods or conditions is not possible.

6(a) They are:
i. Contribution to knowledge;
ii. Researchability;
iii. Suitability;
iv. Finance consideration is important;
v. The problem must be one that is feasible in the situation which, you as a researcher find yourself;
vi. The researcher must have interest in the problem.

i. Contribution to Knowledge
The research problem and the solution should contribute to the body of knowledge in education.

ii. Creating Room for Further Research
The solution of an identified research problem should lead up to new problems leading to further research in that area.

iii. Researchability
The identified research problem must be researchable. To be researchable, a problem must be concerned with the existing relationship of two or more variable that can be defined and measured. An example is the relationship between the school learning environment and students' academic achievements.

iv. The Researcher must have Interest in the Problem.
Your interest in a particular research topic will motivate you to exact meaningful time and energy to successfully see the end of the research. The problem must be in area in which you have knowledge and experience. You as a researcher should be familiar with the existing theories, concepts and facts order to identity a worthwhile problem. You must have skills and competencies needed to carry out the study successfully. You must be capable of developing and validating the research instruments. Possession of necessary statistical skills in order to be able to analyse the research date.

v. Financial Consideration is also Important.
You must consider the financial involvement of the problem before embarking on the research. Many research studies have been abandoned halfway due time and financial constraints, (Koleoso, 1990).

6(b) Mention and discuss the uses of research in education
Research according to Best J.N. (1977) is considered to be the more formal, systematic and intensive process of carrying on a scientific method of analysis. Adeyemi and Fasina (2004) in the same vein stressed that good knowledge of research work will enable the teacher and other educators to plan and anticipate the consequences of the important decisions they have made. The uses of research in education among all include:

* Assist to discover new ideas and relevant information on the relevant information on the identified problem.

* Helps establish creative and technological reasoning

* Assists individual and collective research work in solving local, state and national problem.

* Helps to monitor the development and progress of education programmes.

YEAR: 2012 RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
PDE 708 (FORMALLY 205)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. List and discuss five (5) types of educational research variables.

2. (a) Explain the term "Educational Research"
(b) "Educational Research is relevant in Education". Give reasons by justify this statement.

3. List and describe the major components of a research report.

4. (a) Differentiate between research question and research Hypothesis.
(b) Analyse the characteristics of a good hypothesis.

5. (ai) What is research?
ii. Give four uses of research in education.
(b) How do we evaluate the usefulness of a research problem?

6. (a) Analyse the THREE (3) major components of education Research.
(b) Select a research topic of your choice and outline the steps you would take to carrying out the study (using the components of research proposal in education)

(Repeated Question 2010 No. 3 and 2011, No. 1)

Essentially, a research report comprises three major sections, viz
a. The Preliminary Section
b. The Main Body
c. The Appendix

a. The Preliminary Section include:
i. The title page
ii. Certification page
iii. Acknowledgement
iv. Table of contents
v. List of tables
vi. List of figures
vii. List of Appendices
viii. The Abstract

The Title Page
This carries information on the project the programme (degree, diploma, or certificate), the department and the University/institution to which the report is being presented, the particulars of the student or the researcher submitting the project the month and year the project is submitted.

Certification Page
This is where the supervisor and head of department will append their signatures for approval of the report.

The Acknowledgement
This is used to show gratitude and indebtedness to individuals, institutions or organizations for their contributions toward the success of the project.

The Table of Contents
This contains chapters, parts of the report and the pages where they appear. Only the first pages are indicated.

List of Tables and Figures
Follows the table of contents

The List of Appendices

(Repeated Question 2010, No 6(a) and 6 (b))

5(a) (i)
Research is the systematic investigation into and study of material and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. Moreover, research may be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and reporting of controlled observation with a view to arrive at the development of generalizations, principles, theories or explanation of phenomena.

5a(ii)
Research according to Best (1977) is considered to be the more formal, systematic and intensive process of carrying on a scientific method of analysis. Adeyemi and Fasina (2004) in the same vein stressed that good knowledge of research work will enable the teacher and other educators to plan and anticipate the consequences of the important decisions they have made. The uses of research in educating among all include the following:
(a) Research in education assists to discover new ideas and relevant information on the relevant information on the identified problem.

(b) It helps to establish creative and technological reasoning.

(c) It assists individual and collective research work in solving local, state and national problems.

(d) Research in education helps to monitor the development and progress of education programmes.

5(b) (Repeated Question 2011, No. 6(a))

(6(a) and 6(b): Repeated Question (2010, question 4(a) and 4(b))

YEAR: 2013 RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
PDE 708 (FORMALLY 205)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1 (a) Differentiate between 'concept' and construct in educational research; (5 marks)
b. List and explain the (5) characteristics of educational research (20 marks)

2. Define statistics and enumerate its four (4) primary purposes in education. (25 marks)

3(a) Briefly explain the following:
(i) Data, (ii) Mode (iii) Media (iv) Quartiles (v) Class size
b. Give one example of each. (25 marks)

4. Explain the term 'research in education and discuss four (4) reasons for the relevance of research in education. (25 marks)

5(a) Formulate one (1) research problem (topic) that could be investigated using experiential research design.
b. For research problem formulate above,
(i) identify the dependant and independent variables. (6 marks)
(ii) Formulate two (2) research question and one (1) research hypothesis (14 marks).

6. Differentiate between a survey and causal comparative research design; (5 marks)
b. Outline the format of the main body of the research work, from chapters one (1) to five (5) (20marks).

1(a) Differentiate between 'concept' and construct in educational research.
A concept is an expression of an abstraction formed from generalization of particulars, for example, weight. This expression is from observations of certain behaviours or weights.

Whereas a construct is a concept that has been formulated so that it can be used in science. It is used in theoretical schemes. It is defined so that it can be observed and measured.

1(b) List and explain the five (5) characteristics of educational research
(Repeated Question 2011, No. 1(b) and 2011, No. 2(a))

Statistics is defined as the science comprising rules and procedures for collecting, organizing, summarizing, describing, analyzing, presenting and interpreting numerical data which are used in making decisions, valid estimates, predictions and generalizations.

The primary purposes of statistics are to:
(i) Reduce large array of data to manageable and comprehensible form;
(ii) Aid in the study of populations and samples;
(iii) Aid in making reliable inferences about events based on observational data; and
(iv) Help in arriving at valid and reliable decisions and generalizations.

i. Data: This is a collection of information, qualitative or quantitative. That is information that has not been processed is called data (raw material).

ii. Mode: The mode is the value with the highest frequency, that is, the value that occurs most. The mode may not exist and even when it exists, it may not be unique (having one mode) as it may be bimodal, (having two mode in a given distribution) etc.

iii. Median: The median of set of members arranged (ascending or descending order) in an array is the middle value where the data is odd and the arithmetic mean of the two middle values where the data is even.

iv. Quartiles: Just as the median divides the data into two equal halves, so quartiles divides the data into four (4) equal part.

4th quartile (100%)
3rd quartile (75% below)
2nd quartiles (median with 50% of value)
1st quartiles(25% of values below)

v. Class Size: Is the difference between the lower and upper class limits. It is also called the class with or class strength.

3(b) Giving one example of each

Examples of data, scores of the students in your class on statistics are as follows:

Kalu - 70 Lawrence - 45
Musa - 50 Ade - 52
Amadi - 88 Ofodile - 48
Hanatu - 60 Benedict - 55
Bonu - 90 Osun - 40

Ranking:
90 88 70 60 55 52 48 45 40

This is an array of raw data.

This array provides a more convenient arrangement. The highest score being 90 and the lowest 40.

From this, the range can be easily calculated.

Example of Mode: Finding the mode in the following set of number
The set 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18
The mode is 9

Example of Media. Finding the median of 14, 3, 2, 1, 5, 1, 7, 1, 7
Arrange is ascending or descending order: 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 7, 14
3 is the median since it lies in the middle of the arrangement.

Example of quartiles. An example taken from scores of students in mathematics examination 1 to 100
1st quartiles = 25% of values below
2nd quartiles = 50%
3rd quartiles = 75%
4th quartiles = 100%

Examples of class size
Values as measured True value
60 – 63 59.5 – 63.5
64 – 67 63.5 – 67.5
68 – 71 67.5 – 71.5

The class size is 63.5 – 59.5
or 64 – 60 = 4

(Repeated Question 2010, No. 1(a) and 2012, 5a(ii)).

5(a) Effects of two teaching methods in students learning achievements.

5(b) i. The teaching methods are independent variables while learning achievements are the dependent variable.

5(b) ii. What are the effects of teaching methods on the students performance in mathematics?; How can this effects be corrected?

Hypothesis: There is no significance difference between the effects of teaching methods and students performance in mathematics.

6(a) Differentiate between a survey and a causal comparative research designs.

In a survey research design, you study large and small populations (or universe) by selecting and studying sample chosen from the populations to discover the relatives incidence, distribution and interrelations of sociological and psychological variables.

Whereas, in causal comparative design investigating the extend and possible cause and effect relationship by observing some existing consequences and searching back through the data for plausible causal factors, for example, you may want to identify factors relating to the "drop-out" problem in a particular school, using data from records over the period of say twenty years; or to identify possible causes of students poor performance in external/public examinations, (e.g. WAEC, NECO, SSCE, etc), in general or in any particular subject of interest.

6(b) Outline the format of the main body of the research work, from chapters one (1) to five (5).

Chapter 1: Introduction;
i. Background of the Study;
ii. Statement of the Problem;
iii. Purpose of the Study;
iv. Research Question and/or Hypothesis;
v. Scope and Delimitations of the Study;
vi. Definition of operational terms;

Chapter 2: Review of Literature
This treats the review of related literature.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology
This chapter comprises the following sub-sections:
i. Research Design
ii. Area of Study
iii. Population
iv. Sample and sampling Procedure
v. Instrument for Data Collection
vi. Validation of the Instrument
vii. Reliability of the Instrument
viii. Method of Data Analysis
ix. Result and Discussion

Chapter 4: Summary, Conclusion, Implications and Recommendation
i. Summary
ii. Conclusion
iii. Implications of the Findings
iv. Recommendations arising from the Study
v. Limitations of the Study
vi. Suggestions for Further Studies

Chapter 5: References
i. References
ii. Appendix

YEAR: 2014 RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
PDE 708 (FORMALLY 205)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. Review and explain the basic component of a research report.
[25 marks].

2. Identify five (5) basic methods of research and briefly discuss any three (3).
[25 marks].

3a. Distinguish clearly between an educational research and a research hypothesis.
[5 marks].

b. Describe any 5 (five) useful steps for effective research methodology or procedure.

4. Discuss any five (5) characteristics which research problems must satisfy in order to justify its usefulness. [25 marks].

5. Identify and explain any five (5) types of educational research.
[25 marks].

6. Explain any five (5) significance of educational research.
[25 marks].

1(a) Teachers, learners and other are concerned about whether learning has actually taken place or not. For this reason, curriculum developers had to concern themselves with the identification of means to determine both quality and quantity of learning. If education is regarded as a process that seeks to change the behavior of learners in the direction of predetermined objectives, this can be achieved through the process of curriculum evaluation. Thus, evaluation can be defined as the process of determining the nature and extent of those changes in learner's behaviour after a programme of curriculum and instruction.

Evaluation per forms certain functions as an important phase of curriculum development which includes the following:
i. It is meant to check the reality of the hypotheses upon which the curriculum has been based;
ii. It serves a diagnostic function in the school and in curriculum development;
iii. Information on the variation in the achievement of individual learner is made possible by evaluation;
iv. Results of evaluation can provide adequate data which will enable the teacher to report to parents and the school management about the success or otherwise of the school.

1(b) Four models of curriculum evaluation are:

i. Tyler's Objectives-Centred Model
One of the earliest curriculum evaluation models, which continues to influence many assessment projects was that proposed by Ralph Tyler (1950) in his monograph Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. As explained in this work and used in numerous large-scale assessment efforts, the Tyler approach moved rationally and systematically through several related steps:

1. Begin with behavioural objectives that have been previously determined;
2. Identify the situations that will give the student the opportunity to express the behavior embodied in the objective and that evoke or encourage this behavior;
3. Select, modify, or construct suitable evaluation instruments, and check the instruments for objectivity, reliability and validity;
4. Use the instruments to obtain summarized or appraised results;
5. Compare the results obtained from several instruments before and after given periods;
6. Analyze the result;
7. Use the results to make the necessary modification in the curriculum.

This type of model is relatively easy to understand and apply and it focuses attention on curriculum strength and weaknesses.

ii. Stufflebeam's Context, Input, Process, Product Model
Daniel Stufflebeam (1971) model seemed to appeal to educational leaders because it emphasized the relevance of producing evaluative data for decision making 'decision making was the sole justification for evaluation in this model.

To service the needs of decision makers, the stufflebeam model provides a means for generating data relating to four stages of programme operation: context evaluation, input evaluation, process evaluation and product evaluation.
During each of these for stages, specific steps are taken:
1. The kinds of decision are identified;
2. The kinds of data needed to make those decisions are identified;
3. Those data are collected;
4. The criteria for determining quality are established;
5. The data are analysed on the basis of those criteria;
6. The needed information is provided to decision makers.

The Context, Input, Process, Product, (CIPP) Model, as it has come to be called, has several attractive features for those interested in curriculum evaluation. Its emphasis on decision making seems appropriate for administrators concerned with improving curricula.

iii. Scriven's Goal Free Model
Michael Scriven (1972), was the first to question the assumption that goals or objectives are crucial in the evaluation process.

In conducting a goal-free evaluation, the evaluator functions as an unbiased observer who begins by generating a profile of needs for the group served by a given programme (Scriven is somewhat vague as to how this needs profile is to be derived). Then, by using methods that are primarily qualitative in nature, the evaluator assesses the actual effects of the programme. If a programme has an effect that is responsive to one of the identified need, then the programme is perceived as useful.

Scriven's main contribution, obviously was to redirect the attention of evaluators and administrators to the importance of unintended effects - a redirection that seems especially useful in education. If a mathematics programme achieves its objectives of improving computational skills but has the unintended effect of diminishing interest in mathematics, then it cannot be judged completely successful.

iv. Stake's Responsive Model
Robert Stake (1975) made a major contribution to curriculum evaluation in his development of the responsive model, because the responsive model is based explicitly on the assumption that the concerns of the stakeholders - those for whom the evaluation is done - should be paramount in determining the evaluation issues. He recommends an interactive and recursive evaluation process that embodies these steps:

1. The evaluator meets with students, staff, and audiences to gain a sense of their perspectives on and intentions regarding the evaluation;
2. The evaluator draws on such discussions and the analysis of any documents to determine the scope of the evaluation project;
3. The evaluator observes the programme closely to get a sense of its operation and to note any unintended deviations from announced intents;
4. The evaluator discovers the stated and real purposes of the project and the concerns that various audiences have about it another evaluation;
5. The evaluator identifies the issues and problems with which the evaluation should be concerned;
6. The evaluator selects the means needed to acquire the data desired. Most often, the means will be human observers or judges;
7. The evaluator organizes the information into themes and prepares 'portrayals' that communicate in natural ways the thematic reports;
8. BY again being sensitive to the concerns of the stakeholders, the evaluator decides which audiences require which reports and chooses formats most appropriate for given audiences (as cited by Glatthorn, 1987, pp. 275-276).

(Repeated Question, 2012, No. 4).

The three (3) foundation areas in curriculum development include
i. Philosophical Foundation area
ii. Sociological Foundation area and
iii. Psychological foundation area

i. Philosophical Foundation Area
Curriculum decision involve the consideration of several issues in education such as: purpose of learning, sources of subject matter, characteristics of the learner, the nature teaching/learning process, etc. When these decisions are based upon fundamental beliefs that arise from one's philosophy education in curriculum development, it is termed "Philosophical Foundation Area".

The various schools of philosophical thought that had influenced the field of curriculum are: idealism, realism, pragmatism and existentialism. Education theories that had been seen to affect curriculum design are: essentialism and reconstructionism.

1. Idealism:
When considering the organization of the school curriculum plans, it is important to note that even children are born with inherent goodness and that they have within them a tendency to do what is good and right. Thus, they must be assisted in bringing up that goodness to the surface. This set of belief about education is based on the traditional philosophy of idealism.

2. Realism:
When a child is viewed as an ignorant and rational person, he must be directed towards worthwhile knowledge. Left to himself, he would probably remain ignorant. It is therefore, the responsibility of the teacher to identify worthwhile knowledge for transmission to students. This set of beliefs about education is based on the philosophy of realism.

3. Pragmatism
This school of thought believes that children are born with the physical and mental equipment which allows them full participation in their environment, whatever values and ideas people believed in would be regarded as tentative since future social development may refine or change them. As children grow up, what they know and how they behave are as a result of interacting with the world around them.

It's not any fixed body of knowledge but what will help them to understand more fully their interactions with their environment.

4. Existentialism
Philosophy of existentialism believe that people exist and as they grow, they develop ideas and values that are highly personal and not necessarily connected with any organized social pattern.

Education that will be given to children must centre on the perfections and feeling of the individual which will facilitate understanding of personal reaction to life situation.

5. Essentialism
This is of the view that education should prepare the learner to adjust to present conditions in society. Teachers within the school, according to this theory, play a directive role. They mainly disseminate information to learners.

6. Reconstructionism
Reconstructionism is of the view that democracy has a value that should be developed. Emphasis in school should be on participation problem-solving, concern for social welfare and the application of systematic planning techniques. The school should therefore be a microcosm of a truly democratic society. The central focus of the curriculum is subject-matter from various fields that will be used as a vehicle for studying social problems.

ii. Sociological Foundation Area
When a child is born, he is born into a family, the family becomes the first agent of socializing him. As he grows up, it is noted that the school comes in as another agent of socialization. With time, it will be seen that the world of the child is larger than the home and the school and that world influences both his interests and attitude. The society maintained the school partly to help the growing child adapt to and prepare for life in the larger society. For this curriculum developers must put into consideration the characteristics of the contemporary society as well as, that of the future in which the child of today will live most of his life as a mature adult.

Also, children learn a lot ant-or-school from sources like: Television, parents, friends, the community, mosques and churches, print media like magazine, newspapers, etc. depending on the type of education the school provides, it becomes a major factor in the improvement of society.

Curriculum developers need to decide what kind of skills, knowledge and attitudes are needed by the society. Whether they should plan what will conform the existing social order, encourage questioning of those order, what issues and facts should be studied in schools should be their major concern when planning the school curriculum. Other social issues, according to Beane et al (9180), that curriculum planners should address are:
i. Technology;
ii. Family structure;
iii. Working in the information society;
iv. Changing sex roles;
v. Cultural diversity and pluralism;
vi. Changing lifestyles values;
vii. Futuristic transformation.

iii. Psychological Foundation Area
the psychological foundations of curriculum is concerned with basic needs of children which must be met if things will grow up and function well in the society in which they found themselves. What is being taught in schools should respond to these basic needs of youngsters at every stage of their growth and development. When planning any school curriculum, consideration should be given to the nature of and level of the learner, materials and learning experiences to be used. The nature of teaching learning interaction has been found to be critical to learning. For teaching to be effective, the teacher has to bear in mind activity's level of difficulty, learner's prior experience and skill and his own ability, understanding and capacity to adapt the lesson to these variables.

Some of the basic human needs to be put into consideration while developing a curriculum include:
i. the need for love, belonging, affection and security;
ii. the need for new-experiences;
iii. the need for responsibility;
iv. the need for praise cognition;
v. the need for achievement; and
vi. the need for self-actualization.

If what is developed as the school curriculum can be developed in take into account and help to resolve the emotional needs of children who will be final recipients of what was developed the school will become an emotional secure environment.

(Repeated Question 2012, No. 5.)
Note: Choose the demonstration method on 2013, No. 2 to complete the five (5) teaching methodologies in educational practice.

5(a) Different components of a curriculum are discussed below:

1. The Selection of Aims, Goals and Objectives
Instructional objectives are the specific and immediate outcomes of particular teaching-learning situation. In curriculum development they take farm in a listing of statements describing the intended, learning for students. Instruction objectives are known to serve three purposes in curriculum development:
i. They clarify for teacher and learner what is to be accomplished.
ii. They serve as a guide for design and selection of meaningful content
iii. They provide guidance for measuring learner's progress.

The three domains of knowledge cognitive, affective and psychomotor, should be considered when selecting objectives.

2. Content
The content component of teaching-learning situations refers to the important facts, principles, concepts and understanding associated with the predetermined objectives. This part of curriculum raises the question, "what content will the teachers and learners need to consider in order to accomplish the instructional objectives?"

3. Organization of Learning Experiences
In structuring learning experiences and content, consideration should be given to research findings in the theories of learning and child development and sound educational practices. The contents should be organized in such a way as to produce major charges in the learners in the direction of stated objectives.

4. Evaluation Procedures
Evaluation is the process of determining the nature and extent of those changes in learner's behavior after a programme of curriculum and instruction. It is the process of evaluation that teachers can know whether learning has taken place or not.

5(b) Characteristics/Features of a Good Curriculum are:
i. Purposeful Aims and Objectives;
ii. Functionality;
iii. Flexibility;
iv. Relevance; and
v. Evaluation.

i. Purposeful Aims and Objectives
The aims and objectives must be clearly and precisely stated bearing in mind the societal values and the needs of the child. In learner's age level of development needs and interests. The economic attainment, religion, philosophy, and norms of the people should also be put into consideration.

ii. Functionality
The curriculum planned must be workable, practicable and feasible. For a curriculum planned to be called functional, it must be stated in clear and understandable terms. Practicability is another criteria for judging the functionality of a curriculum. The curriculum should be able to succeed given the human and economic resources available. It should also be acceptable by the people in a given society. it should strike a balance between theory and practice. Issues in a curriculum should be attainable.

iii. Flexibility
The curriculum must be capable of adapting to the needs of the changing learner and the society. Since education is not static, it should change with the society. It must be flexible and be able to create and avenue for growth and development to attain the predetermined objectives. It should be sufficiently flexible to enhance its adaptation to the changing condition and needs of the people.

iv. Relevance
The curriculum should emphasize those aspects that will be of benefit to the learner and the society. The curriculum should assist in helping to ease contact between the learner and his studies, socialize him and facilitate the transfer of knowledge and developmental skills to the entire populace.

v. Evaluation
The curriculum should be subjected to evaluation to ensure that there is progress and that such a progress is in the desired direction. Evaluation as a characteristic could facilitate learning and teaching. It could produce records appropriate to the purpose for which records are essential and provide feedback for curriculum planners and teachers.

5(c) Three Functions of a Good Curriculum according to Onwuka, Ugo (1996) are:

i. It determines educational direction including the decision of the type of society people want to live and serve in.

ii. It determines the principles and procedure which will help educators in selecting and arranging instructional programmes.

iii. It concerns itself with the application of the chosen principles.

It determines educational direction including the decision of the type of society people want to live and serve in. Curriculum as a course serve of study embraces the total spectrums of content, resources, materials and method of teaching through which the purposes of education are achieved. Education is expected to preserve and reform society to the extent that it be a congenial place for individual members to live and work happily in. it is supposed to familiarize members with the physical features of the society together with its cultural patters and practices as well as the effect of these on the individual's behaviour and competence.

ii. It determines the principles and procedure which will help educators in selecting and arranging instructional programmes. Curriculum sets the principles and procedure which help educators in selecting and stating the aims and objectives. Considerations are given to the leaner's age level of development needs and interests, the economic attainment, religion, philosophy and norms of the people.

iii. It concerns itself with the application of the chosen principles. The chosen principles are applied to accomplish their aims and objectives in order to facilitate learning and teaching.

Advantages of Brainstorming Method of Teaching:
i. It is stimulating and provides a varied instruction approach.
ii. It is highly motivating.
iii. Increases task focus.
iv. Promotes spontaneity and creativity.
v. Brainstorming is efficient and productive.
vi. Involves participants in the ownership of ideas.
vii. Provides a permanent record and aids in developing solutions to problems.

i. It is Stimulating and Provides a Varied Instruction Approach
Brainstorming teaching method generates enthusiasm and eagerness among the students to join in by its open invitation to participate and its rapid, free-wheeling approach.

ii. It is Highly Motivating:
Students who usually allow their verbal, articulate classmates to dominate question and answer periods get the urge to participate. They are not "put down" or degraded for "wrong answers" and feel a real sense of contribution as their suggestions are noted on project sheets. On the other hand, those who dominate traditional classroom situations are also stimulated to get their ideas out and on the record.

iii. Increases Task Focus:
The brainstorming group is kept on target with very little pressure from the group leader because of the structure and ground rules. Editorializing, personal commentary, rejoinders, eloquent speeches, and the other destructive activities of committee are eliminated in this process.

iv. Promotes Spontaneity and Creativity:
The method provides an exercise in critical evaluation for pupils and the teacher as well makes for active participation of students, stimulates them to think individually and to learn to express themselves freely.

v. Brainstorming is Efficient and Productive:
It makes students understand that there is no single "right answer" to all questions, but that various possible answers should be explored and considered with a view of finding the best or fullest solution.

vi. Involves Participants in the Ownership of Ideas:
In this method, the teacher draws upon experience and knowledge of the learners instead of leaving them to rely entirely upon his. i.e. the teacher acts as a leader and directs or redirects ideas and information produced by them.

vii. Provides a Permanent Record and Aids in Developing Solutions to Problems:
The results of the sessions can easily be reproduced or reused to design alternate procedures and programmes for solving problems or meeting objectives. The production of the group takes on value as a permanent evaluation record and as testimony to individual and group effort.

DISADVANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING METHOD OF TEACHING

i. It is Time Consuming
The main disadvantage of this method is that it is time consuming. In a group, participants have to listen to others and may spend time repeating their ideas until they get sufficient attention. It must be well organized to avoid waste of time and going off in an unexpected direction.

ii. Cordial Relationship Must be Involves Between the Teacher and His Students
The teacher's relationship with the students must be cordial to enhance their freedom to speak out, yet respect his control. As the name goes, the teacher must encourage as many as possible to participate in brainstorming but not allow one or two to dominate the sessions.

iii. It Enhances the Intimidation of Other Participants
Participants with the ability to express their ideas faster and more effective gain the general attention of the group. Some form of leadership can be formed in this way within the group, which might make other participants feel intimidated.

iv. It Requires Complex/Difficult Procedure
Going through the protocol, processing and ordering the ideas can become a complex procedure. This also depends on the number and order of the generated ideas. Advising participants to let others speak without making them feel offended or intimidated can be difficult.

YEAR: 2010 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
(PDE 705)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. a. Differentiate between the following concepts:
i. Measurement;
ii. Assessment; and
iii. Evaluation.
b. State at least five (5) purposes of evaluation in education.

2. a. Identify and discuss any five (5) factors to be considered for successful evaluation
b. State and explain the purpose of assessment
c. Outline and explain the characteristics of continuous assessment.

3. a. Distinguish between test validity and test reliability
b. Itemize any five (5) types of tests by their aims and objectives

4. a. Distinguish between diagnostic test and predictive test.
b. Highlight any five (5) characteristics of a good test.

5. a. Discuss the characteristics of a good test
b. State and discuss at least four (4) types of validity that can be observed in a test.

6. Fully explain any five (5) factors that can affect the outcomes of a test in the classroom.

1(a)
i. Measurement is a process of carrying out actual measurement in order to assign a quantitative meaning to a quality. For example the determination of the length of a chalkboard is achieved through measurement which must be done physically.

Thus, measurement is a process of assigning numerals to objects, quantities or events in other to give qualitative meaning to such qualities. Measurement stops at ascribing the quantity but not making value judgment on the child's performance.

ii. Assessment is a fact finding activity that describes conditions that exists at a particular time. It often involves measurement to gather data. However, it is the domain of assessment to organize the measurement data into interpretable forms on a number of variables.

Assessment in educational setting may describe the progress students have made towards a given educational goal at a point in time. However, it is not concerned with the explanation of the underlying reasons and does not proffer recommendations for action. Although, there may be some implied judgment as to the satisfactoriness or otherwise of the situation. In the classroom, assessment refers to all the processes and products which are used to describe the nature and the extent of pupil's learning.

iii. While Evaluation adds the ingredient of value judgment to assessment. It is concerned with the application of its finding and implies some judgement of the effectiveness, social utility or desirability of a product, process or progress in terms of carefully defined and agreed upon objectives or values. Evaluation often includes recommendations for constructive action. Hence, evaluation is a qualitative measure of the prevailing situation. It calls for evidence of effectiveness, suitability or goodness of the programme.

1(b) Educational evaluation is carried out from time to time for the following purposes:
i. To determine the relative effectiveness of the programme in terms of students' behavioural output;
ii. To make reliable decisions about educational planning;
iii. To ascertain the worth of time, energy and resources invested in the programme;
iv. To identify students' growth or lack of growth in acquiring desirable knowledge, skills, attitude and societal values;
v. To help teacher determine the effectiveness of their teaching techniques and learning materials;
vi. To help motivate students to want to learn more as they discover their progress or lack of progress in given tasks;
vii. To encourage students to develop a sense of discipline and systematic study habits;
viii. To provide educational administrators with adequate information about teachers' effectiveness and school need;
ix. To acquaint parents or guardians with their children's performances;
x. To identify problems that might hinder or prevent the achievement of set goals.

2(a) Factors to be considered for successful evaluation include:
i. Sampling Technique;
ii. Evaluation must be well organized;
iii. Objectivity of the instrument;
iv. Teachers must have been adequately prepared; and
v. Measurement of students' performances, the content and the techniques used.

i. Sampling Technique
For a successful evaluation to be considered an appropriate sampling procedure must be adopted. Inappropriate sampling techniques will lead to ineffectiveness of the evaluation.

ii. Evaluation Must be Well Organized
Evaluation itself must be well organized in terms of
- Treatment;
- Conducive atmosphere;
- Intended and un-intended outcomes and their implications considered.

iii. Objectivity of the Instrument
This involves any of the following:
- Feasibility of the investigation;
- Resolution of ethical issues;
- Reliability of the test (accuracy of date in terms of stability, repeatability and precision).

iv. Teachers Must have Been Adequately Prepared
They must be qualified to teach the subject allotted to them effectively.

v. Measurement of Students' Performances, the Content and the Techniques Used.
It must be ensure that the disparity in students' performances are related to the content of the test rather than to the technique used in administering the instrument.

2(b) The purpose of Assessment is classified into three, namely:
i. Classroom functions;
ii. Guidance functions; and
iii. Administrative Functions.

i. Classroom Functions
This includes:
1. Determination of level of achievement;
2. Effectiveness of the teacher, teaching method, learning situation and instructional materials;
3. Motivating the child by showing him his progress, i.e. success breeds success; and
4. It can be used to predict students' performance in novel situations.

ii. Guidance Functions
Assessment procedure can give the teacher diagnostic data about individual pupils in his class. These will show the pupils' strength, weaknesses and interests. It can also help to decide on which method to use or what remedial activities that are necessary. Parents and pupils can also be rightly guided in terms of career choice.

iii. Administrative Functions
1. Assessing can serve as communication of information when data collected are used in reports to parents.
2. It could form the basis upon which streaming, grading, selection and placement are based.
3. Making appropriate decisions and recommendations on curricula packages and curricula activities.

2c. Characteristic of Continuous Assessment Tests

i. In most cases, continuous assessment tests are periodical, systematic, and well-planned. Continuous assessment is said to systematic because it has a definitive programme of assessment. They should not be tests organized in a haphazard manner.

ii. Continuous Assessment test can be in any form. They may be oral, written, practical, announced, or unannounced, multiple choice objectives, essay, or subjective etc.

iii. Continuous Assessment tests are often based on what has been learnt within a particular period. Thus, there should be a series of tests.

iv. In Nigerian educational system, continuous assessment tests are part of the scores used to compute the overall performance of students. In most cases, they are 40% of the final score. The final examination often carries 60%.

v. Continuous Assessment tests are designed and produced by the classroom teacher. Some continuous assessment tests are centrally organized for a collection of schools or for a particular state.

vi. All continuous assessment tests should meet the criteria stated for a good test: Validity, reliability, variety of tests items and procedure, etc.

vii. Continuous assessment tests are comprehensive in nature. A variety of instruments or assessment procedures are used in ascertaining the performance of the pupils. Such instruments include tests, examinations, assignments, projects, observations, questionnaires, interviews, socio-metric techniques etc. In so far as continuous assessment looks at the total development of the pupil, it is said to be comprehensive. The cognitive, affective and psychomotor behaviours and domains are all considered and assessed.

3(a) Test validity means that a test measures what it is supposed to measure or test is suitable for the purposes for which it is intended. For example, if someone who is two-hundred pound steps on a scale five times and gets readings of two-hundred each time, then the measurement is valid. But if the scale consistently reads one-hundred and fifty, then it is reliable, but not valid.

While reliability of a test means measuring what it purports to measure consistently. In other words, reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. For e.g, if candidate get similar scores on parallel form of tests, this suggests that the test is reliable. Reliability is a prerequisite for measuring validity.

3(b) Types of tests by their aims and objectives are:
i. Placement Tests: for placing students at a particular level, school, or college.
ii. Achievement Tests: For measuring the achievement of a candidate in a particular course either during or at the end of the course.
iii. Aptitude Tests: Which are designed to determine the aptitude of a student for a particular task course, programme, job, etc.
iv. Diagnostic Tests: For determining the problems of a students in a particular area, task course, or programme diagnostic tests also bring out areas of difficulty of a student for the purposes of remediation.
v. Predictive Tests: This is designed to be able to predict the learning outcomes of the candidate. The test is able to predict that if the candidate is able to pass a particular test, he will be able to carry out a particular task, skill, course, action or programme.

4(a)
Diagnostic Test | Predictive Test
---------------------------------------- | i. It is used for determining the | It is designed to be able to
problems of a student in a | predict the learning outcomes of
particular area, task, or | the candidate. A predictive test
programme. It also brings out | is able to forecast that if the
areas of difficulty of a student for | candidate is able to pass a
the purpose of remediation. | particular rest, he will be able to
| carry out a particular task, skill,
| course, etc.
ii. For example, a diagnostic test | For example, we assume a
may reveal whether or not a | predictive test that if, Aliu
learner has a problem with | passes UTME, he will be able to
pronouncing a sound, solving a | go to level 100 of a university
problem involving decimal, or | and study Engineering. Here,
constructing a basic shape, etc. | predictive test is used to predict
| outcomes and not to reveal the
| problems or difficulty areas of a
| learner.

4(b) The characteristic features of a good test include any of the following:

i. A Good Test Should be Valid
This means that a test should measure what it is supposed to measure or be suitable for the purpose for which it is intended.

ii. A Good Test Should be Reliable
Test reliability means measuring what it purports to measure consistently. If candidates get similar scores on parallel forms of tests, this suggests that the test is reliable.

iii. A Good Test must be Capable of Accurate Measurement of the Academic Ability of the Learner: A good test should give a true picture of the learner. It should point out clearly areas that are learnt and areas not learnt.

iv. A good test should combine both discrete point and integrative test procedures for a fuller representation of teaching and learning points. A good test should integrate all various learners' needs, range of teaching-learning situations, objectives and subjective items.

v. A Good Test must Represent Teaching-Learning Objectives and Goals: The test should be conscious of the objectives of learning and objectives of testing. For example, if the objective of learning is to master a particular skill and apply the skill, testing should be directed towards the mastery and application of the skill.

5(a) A good test should possess any of the following characteristics:

i. Test Materials must be Properly and Systematically Selected:
The test materials must be selected in such a way that they cover the syllabus, teaching course outlines or the subject area. The resources or materials should be of mixed difficulty levels (not too easy or too difficult) which represent the specific targeted learners' needs.

ii. Variety is Also A Characteristics of A Good Test
This includes a variety of test type. Multiple choice tests, subjective tests, etc. it also includes variety of tasks and so on. It also includes variety of tasks within each test: writing, reading, speaking, listening, re-writing, transcending, solving, organizing and presenting extended information, interpreting, black filling, matching, extracting points, distinguishing, identifying, constructing, producing, designing, etc. In most cases both the tasks and the materials to be used in the tests should be real to the life of the learner is being trained for.

iii. A Good Test Should be Reliable
Reliability simply means measuring what it purports to measure consistently. On a reliable test, one can be confident that someone will get more or less the same score on different occasions or when it is used by different people.

iv. A Good Test Should Be Valid
By this, it means the test measures what it is supposed to measure or be suitable for the purpose for which it is intended.

v. A Good Test Must Be Capable of Accurate Measurement
It must be capable of accurate measure must of the academic ability of the learner. A good test should give a true picture of the learner. It should point out clearly areas that are learnt and areas not learnt. All being equal, a good test should isolate the good from the bad. A good student should not fail a good test, while a poor student passes with flying colours.

vi. A Good Test Should combine both Discrete Point and Integrative Test Procedures.
It should have the capability to combine both discrete point and integrative test procedures for a fuller representation of teaching -learning points. The test should on both discrete points of the subject area as well as the integrative aspects. A good test should integrate all various learners' needs, rang of teaching-learning situations, objective and subjective items.

vii. A Good Test Must Represent Teaching-Learning Objectives and Goals.
The test should be conscious of the objectives of learning and objectives of testing. For example, if the objective of learning is to master a particular skill and apply the skill, testing should be directed towards the mastery and application of the skill.

viii. A Good Test Should Be Objective
If it is marked by different teachers, the score will be the same. Marking process should not be affected by the teacher's personality. Questions and answers are so clear and definite that the marker would give the students the score her she deserves.

ix. A Good Test Should Be Clear.
Questions and instructions should be clear. Pupil should know what to do exactly.

5(b) There are different kinds / types of validity that can be looked for in a test. Some of these are:
i. Content Validity; ii. Face Validity;
iii. Criterion-Referenced Validity; iv. Predictive Validity;
v. Construct validity; vi. Formative Validity.

i. Content Validity
This validity suggests the degree to which a test adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills, subject components, items function or behavior it sets out to measure. To ensure content validity of a test, the content of what the test is to cover must be placed side-by-side with the test itself to see correlation or relationship. The test should reflect aspects that are covered in the appropriate order of importance and in the right quantity.

ii. Face Validity
This is a validity that depends on the judgment of the external observer of the test. It is the degree to which a test appears to measures the knowledge and ability based on the judgment of the external observer. Face validity entails how clear the instructions are, how well-structured the items of the test, how consistent the numbering, sections and sub-section etc. are.

iii. Criterion-Referenced Validity
This validity involves specifying the ability domain of the learner and defining the end points so as to provide absolute scale. In order to achieve this goal, the test that is constructed is compared or correlated with an outside criterion, measure or judgment. If the comparison takes place the same time, it is called concurrent validity. For example, the mathematics test may be compared with the UTME Mathematics test. If the correlation is high, i.e. r=0.5 and above, we say the mathematics test, validity. For criterion-referenced validity to satisfy the requirement of comparability, they must share common scale or characteristics.

iv. Predictive Validity
Predictive validity suggests the degree to which a test accurately predicts future performance. For example, if we assume that a student who does well in a particular mathematics aptitude test should be able to undergo a physics course successfully, predictive validity is achieved if the student does well in the course.

v. Construct Validity
This refers to how accurately a given test actually describes an individual in terms of a stated psychological trait. A test designed to test feminity should show women performing better than males in tasks usually associated with women. If this is not so, then the assumptions on which the test was constructed are not valid.

vi. Formative Validity
When applied to outcomes assessment it is used to assess how well a measure is able to provide information to help improve the programme under study.

The following factors do affect the outcome of the test in the classroom:

1. Student Factors: These Include:
i. Socio-economic background of the student;
ii. Health of the student;
iii. Anxiety;
iv. Interest; and
v. Mood.

2. Teacher Factors: These involve:
i. Teacher characteristics;
ii. Instructional techniques employed; and
iii. Teachers' qualification/knowledge.

3. Learning Materials: They include:
i. The nature/type of the materials;
ii. Appropriateness in the use of the materials.

4. Environmental Factors
i. Time of day;
ii. Weather Condition;
iii. Arrangement; and
iv. Invigilation, etc.

5. Appropriateness of the Objective of the Test
The instructional objectives should be developed in such a way that are behavioral, precise, realistic and at an appropriate level of generality that will serve as a useful guide to teaching and evaluation, otherwise the objective will affect the outcome of the test in the classroom.

YEAR: 2011 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
(PDE 705)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. a. Discuss the purposes of formative evaluation.
b. Enumerate some questions often asked in carrying out formative evaluation.

2. a. What is summative evaluation?
b. Highlight the three (3) classifications of educational objectives by Benjamin Bloom.
c. Write out a question each to satisfy the three types of educational objectives.

3. Write short notes on the following:
i. Measurement;
ii. Assessment;
iii. Evaluation.

4. Fully explain any five (5) purposes of evaluation in education.

5. a. Critically examine the concept of test reliability.
b. Describe the methods you would use in estimating test reliability.

6. a. Explain each of the following terms:
i. Mean;
ii. Median;
iii. Mode;
iv. Range;
v. Quartiles.
b. Enumerate the steps you will take in finding the standard deviation of a set of scores.
c. The scores of ten (10) students in a mathematical test are 68, 58, 47, 45, 54, 50, 60, 59, 48, 52.
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of scores.

1(a) The purpose of formative evaluation is to find out whether after a learning experience students are able to do what they were previously unable to do. Its ultimate goal is usually to help students perform well at the end of a programme, formative evaluation enables the teacher to:

i. Draw more reliable inference about his students than an external assessor, although he may not be as objective as the latter.
ii. Identify the levels of cognitive process of his students;
iii. Choose the most suitable reaching techniques and materials;
iv. Determine the feasibility of a programme within the classroom setting;
v. Determine areas needing modifications or improvement in the teaching-learning process;
vi. Determine to a great extent the outcome of summative evaluation (Ogunniyi, M.B., 1984).

1(b) Some of the questions often asked in carrying out formative evaluation include:
i. What is the objective of the lesson?
ii. What materials will be needed to teach this lesson?
iii. In what sequence will the different aspects of the topic be treated? How much time should be given to different aspects of the topic?
iv. What teaching techniques will be most suitable to transmit this knowledge or skill?
v. What evaluation techniques would be used to assess student achievement? Will they be effective or not?
vi. What assignment or project should be given as part of or part from class work?
vii. Has the objective been achieved?
viii. What progress are the students making? What difficulties are they encountering relative to the topic?
ix. What additional facilities or resources would enhance the knowledge or skills gained by the students?
x. Are students' needs and interests being met? Are the students able to transfer their knowledge or skills to other areas?

QUESTIONS 2
a. What is summative evaluation?
b. Highlight the three (3) classifications of educational objectives by Benjamin Bloom.
c. Write out a question each to satisfy the three types of educational objectives.

2(a) Summative evaluation often attempts to determine the extent the broad objectives of a programme have been achieved, i.e. SSSCE, (NECO or WAEC), promotion, GRADE two, NABTEB Exams and other public examinations). It is concerned with purposes, progress and outcomes of the teaching-learning process.

Summative evaluation is judgemental in nature and often carries threat with it in that the student may have no knowledge of the evaluator and failure has a far reaching effect on the students. However, it is more objective than formative evaluation. Some of the underlying assumptions of summative evaluation are that:

i. The programme's objective are achievable;
ii. The teaching-learning process has been conducted efficiently;
iii. The teacher-student-material interactions have been conducive to learning;
iv. The teaching techniques, learning materials and audio-visual aids are adequate and have been judiciously dispensed; and
v. There is uniformity in classroom conditions for all learners.

2(b) Benjamin Bloom et al classified all educational objectives into three, namely:
i. Cognitive domain;
ii. Affective domain; and
iii. Psychomotor domain.

2(c)
i. Cognitive Domain- Mention any five states in Nigeria?
ii. Affective Domain - What are your beliefs about the Ijaw people?
iii. Psychomotor Domain - Draw the map of Nigeria

(Repeated Question, 2010, No. 1(a))

Educational evaluation is carried out from time to time for the following purposes:

i. To provide an objective basis for determining the promotion of students from one class to another as well as award of certificates. Evaluation is used to place students into a particular class, school, level or employment. The assumption here is that an individual who performs creditably well at a level can be moved to another level after evaluation after which a certificate may be awarded.

ii. Evaluation can reveal the problems or difficulty areas of a learner. Thus, we say we use evaluation to diagnose or find out the problems or difficulty areas of a student. An evaluation may reveal whether or not a learner, for example, has a problem with pronouncing a sound, solving a problem involving decimal, or constructing a basic shape, example, a triangle.

iii. We evaluate students to find out whether the objectives set for a particular course, lesson or topic have been achieved or not. Evaluation measures the performance of a student in a course, lesson or topic and thus, tell the teacher or course developer that the objectives of the course or lesson have been achieved or not. If the person taught performed badly, the teacher may have to take a second look at the objectives of the course of lesson.

iv. We evaluate students in the class to determine the progress made by the students. For a teacher to know whether or not the students are improving in the course, lesson, or topic, he must know the level of the progress. If progress is made, he reinforces the progress so that the students can learn more. If progress is slow, he slows down the speed of his teaching.

v. Evaluation is used to predict outcomes. Evaluation is used to predict whether or not a learner will be able to do a certain job, task, use language to study in a university or perform well in a particular school, college, or university.

5(a) Reliability of a test is the degree by which a test measures what it purports to measure constituently. If candidates get similar scores on parallel forms of tests this suggests that the test is reliable. This kind of reliability is called parallel form of reliability or alternate form of reliability. Split-half is an estimate of reliability based on coefficient of correlation between two halves of a test. It may be between odd and even scores or between first and second half of the items of the test.

In order to estimate the reliability of a full test rather than the separate halves, the spearman-Brown Formula is applied. Test and re-test scores are correlated. If the correlation referred to as r is equal to 0.5 and above, the test is said to be of moderate or high correlation, depending on the value of r along the scale (i.e. 0.5 - 0.9) -1 is a perfect correlation which is rare.

Inter consistency reliability is a measure of the degree to which different examiners or test raters agree in their evaluation of the candidates' ability. Inter-rater (two or more different raters of a test) reliability is said to be high when the degree of agreement between the raters is high or very close. Intra-rater (One rater rating scripts at different points in time or at different intervals is the degree to which a marker making a subjective rating of, say essay etc., gives the same evaluation on two or more different occasions.

The most common internal consistency measure is Cronbach's alpha, which is usually interpreted as the mean of all possible split-half coefficients.

5(b) Methods used for estimating reliability include:
i. Test-retest method;
ii. Alternate/parallel-forms method;
iii. Split-half method; and
iv. Internal consistency.

1. Test-Retest Method
In this method, an identical test is administered to the same group of students on different occasions. i.e. it directly assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent from one test administration to the next.
It involves administering a test to a group of individuals, re-administering the same test to the same group at some later time, and correlating the first set of scores (test) with the second.

The correlation between scores on the first test and the scores on the retest is used to estimate the reliability of the test using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient or the Spearman's Rank Difference method.

2. Alternate / Parallel-Forms Method
Two equivalent tests of different contents are given to the same group of students on different occasions. The key to this method is the development of alternate test forms that are equivalent in terms of content, response processes and statistical characteristics. For example, alternate forms exist for several tests of general intelligence, and these tests are generally seen equivalent.
With the parallel test model it is possible to develop two forms of a test that are equivalent in the sense that a person's true score on form A would be identical to their true score on form B. if both forms of the test were administered to a number of people, differences between scores on form A and Form B may be due to errors in measurement only.

It involves:
i. Administering one form of test to a group of individuals;
ii. At some later time, administering an alternate form of the same test to the same group of people; and
iii. Correlating scores on form A with scores on form B.

The correlation between scores on the two alternate forms is used to estimate the reliability of the test.

ADVANTAGES
i. This method provides a partial solution to many of the problems inherent in the test-retest reliability method. For example, since the two forms of the test are different, carry over effect is less of a problem;
ii. Reactivity effects are also partially controlled, although taking the first test may change responses to the second test. However, it is reasonable to assume that the effect will not be as strong with alternate forms of the test as with administrations of the same test.

DISADVANTAGES
i. It may be very difficult to create several alternate forms of a test;
ii. It may also be difficult if not impossible to guarantee that two alternate forms of a test are parallel measures.

3. Split-Half Method
This method treats the two halves of a measure as alternate forms. It provides a simple solution to the problem that the parallel-forms method faces; the difficulty in developing alternate forms.

It involves administering a test to a group of individuals, splitting the test in half, and correlating scores on one half of the test with scores on the other half of the test.

The correlation between these two split halves is used in estimating the reliability of the test. This halves reliability estimate is then stepped up to the full test length using the Spearman Brown prediction formula.

There are several ways of splitting a test to estimate reliability. For example, a 40-item vocabulary test could be split into two subsets, first one made up of items 1 through 20 another second made up of items 21 through 40. However, the responses from the first half may be systematically different from responses in the second half due to an increase in item difficulty and fatigue.

In splitting a test, the two halves would need to be as similar as possible, both in terms of their content and in terms of the probable state of the respondent. The simplest method is to adopt an odd-even split in which the test -numbered items form one half of the test and the even-numbered items form the other. This arrangement guarantees that each half will contain an equal number of items from the beginning, middle, and end of the original test.

4. Internal Consistency
This is a measure of the degree to which different examiners or test raters agree in their evaluation of the candidates' ability. It assesses the consistency of results across items within a test.

Two or more different raters of a test (inter-rater) reliability is said to be high when the degree of agreement between the raters is high or very close. Intra-rater (one rater rating scripts at different points in time or at different intervals is the degree to which a marker making a subjective rating of, say, an essay or a procedure or construction gives the same evaluation on two or more different occasions.

The most common internal consistency measure is Cronbach's alpha, which is usually interpreted as the mean of all possible split-half coefficients.

i. Mean
This is the average of all the scores and it is obtained by adding the scores together and dividing the sum by the number of scores.
∴ Mean = m = X̄ = Sum of all scores / Number of scores

Though, the mean is influenced by deviant scores, it is very important in that it takes into cognizance the relative size of each score in the distribution and it is also useful for other statistical calculations.

ii. Median
This is the middle score after all the scores have been arranged in order of magnitude i.e. 50% of the score are on either side of it. Median is very good where there are deviant or extreme scores in a distribution, however, it does not take the relative size of all the scores into consideration. Median cannot be used for further statistical computations. For e.g. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6. Then median is 3.

iii. Mode
The mode is the most frequent or popular score in the population. This is usually evident during the drawing of frequency tables. It is not frequently used as the median and mean in the classroom because it can fall anywhere along the distribution of scores (top, middle or bottom) and a distribution may have more than one mode. For example 2,2,2,1,4,6,7,7. In this distribution, the mode is 2.

iv. Range
The range is usually taken as the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a set of distribution. It is completely dependent on the extreme scores and may give a wrong picture of the variability in the distribution. It is the simplest measure of variability. For example 7, 2, 5, 4, 6, 3, 1, 2, 4, 8. Lowest score = 1, highest score = 8. Range 8 - 1 = 7.

v. Quartiles
Quartiles are points on the distribution which divide it into "quartiles", thus, there is the 1st, 2nd and 3rd quartiles. Inter-quartile range is the difference between Q₃ and Q₁ i.e. Q₃ - Q₁. Semi inter-quartile range is half of inter-quartile range. i.e
(Q₃ - Q₁) / 2
Where Q₃ = upper quartile and Q₁ = lower quartile.

6(b) The following steps are used to calculate the standard deviation.
i. Find the mean (m) of the distribution.
ii. Find the deviation (X - m) and square each;
iii. Sum up the squares and divide by the number of the population (N);
iv. Find the positive square root, which is the standard deviation of the distribution.

6(c) Calculation of Standard Deviation

Students | Marks Obtained (X) | Deviations X - m (Take m = 54) | Square Deviation (X-m)² = X²
A | 68 | 14 | 196
B | 58 | 4 | 16
C | 47 | -7 | 49
D | 45 | -9 | 81
E | 54 | 0 | 0
F | 50 | -4 | 16
G | 60 | 6 | 36
H | 59 | 5 | 25
I | 48 | -6 | 36
J | 52 | -2 | 4
| | | 459

Where N = 10
Standard Deviation, SD (∂) = √(ΣX²/N)

= √((X - m)/N) = √(459/10) = √(45.9)

= 6.77 Ans.

YEAR: 2012 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
(PDE 705)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. a. Define evaluation
b. Distinguish test, assessment, measurement and evaluation
c. Discuss five factors to be considered for an effective evaluation process.

2. a. What is school based assessment?
b. Explain four ways by which a teacher can use school based assessment to enhance his or her teaching.
c. Identify and explain briefly the classifications of all educational objectives.

3. a. State the basic principles to be considered for constructing a multiple choice test
b. Enumerate five purposes for which test are being constructed in schools.

4. a. What do you understand by test validity?
b. Identity the different kinds of validity to look for in a test?
c. Analyze the difference between test validity and test reliability.

5. a. Explain five guidelines for scoring an essay test,
b. With relevant examples explain the terms:
i. Item discrimination index;
ii. Item difficulty.

6. a. Write-short notes on the following: Mean, Median, Mode, Range and standard deviation
b. Below is the sample of examination result for a set of students in S.S. Two: Determine (i) Mean (ii) Median and (iii) Mode

35 50 40 45 55 35 32 33 57 52
37 36 23 25 27 29 30 42 43 47
56 57 25 27 33 35 51 45 51 50
51 43 41 51 57 48 41 25 23 24

1(a) Evaluation is the estimation of the worth of a thing, process or programme in order to reach meaningful decisions about that thing, process of programme. It calls for evidence of effectiveness, suitability of goodness of the programme of process. Evaluation could be formative or summative.

1(b) Test is a detailed or small scale task carried out to identify the candidate's level of performance and to find out how far the person has learnt, what was taught or be able to do what he/she is expected to do after teaching. Tests are carried out in order to measure the efforts of the candidate and characterize the performance. Test is an instrument for assessment which means that assessment is broader than tests. Furthermore, tests involve measurement of candidates' performance, while evaluation is a systematic way of assessing the success or failure of a programme.

Assessment: is a fact finding activity that describes conditions that exists at a particular time. It often involves measurement to gather data. However, it is the domain of assessment to organize the measurement data into interpretable forms on a number of variables.

Some educationists in contrasting assessment with evaluation, opined that while evaluation is generally used when the subject is not persons or group of persons but the effectiveness or otherwise of a course or programme of teaching or method of teaching, assessment is used generally for measuring or determining personal attributes (totality of the student, the environment of learning and the student's accomplishments).

While the process of measurement as it implies involves carrying out actual measurement in order to assign a quantitative meaning to a quality. Measurement stops at ascribing the quantity but not making value judgment on any performance of the student.

For evaluation, it adds the ingredient of value judgment to assessment. It is concerned with the application of its findings and implies some judgment of the effectiveness, social utility or desirability of a product, process or progress in terms of carefully defined and agreed upon objectives or values.

Evaluation may be said to be the broadest. It involves assessment but not all assessments are evaluation. Some are reappraisal of a thing, a person, life, etc.

1(c) [Repeated Question 2010, No. 2(a)]

2(a) School based assessment involves deciding how well students have learnt a given content or how far the objective the teacher earlier set out has been achieved quantitatively. Thus, it is a mechanism of assessing or weighing performance of students periodically to be able to determine progress made in teaching - learning activities.

2(b) Four ways by which a teacher can use school based assessment to enhance his/her teacher include:

i. Examination Malpractice
This is an endemic problem at all levels of our educational system. In practice, school based assessment had been able to minimize this to a tolerable level and the fear of using one single examination to judge performance of a wide range of course(s) is removed.

ii. Record Keeping
School based assessment affords the teacher the opportunity to compile and accumulate student's record/performances over a given period of time. Such records are often essential not only in guidance and counseling but also in diagnosing any problem that may arise in future.

iii. Individual Differences
The classroom is an admixture of the slow learners, average, gifted, extroverts, introverts, early bloomers, etc. Each of these categories of students should be given a particular attention by the teacher.

Using school based assessment, the teacher will be able to identify these differences and apply at the appropriate time, the necessary measure to improve not only his teaching but the learning of the students and hence their performances.

iv. Motivation
According to (Deci, E.L., 1980), the effectiveness of efforts to help people learn depends on the learner's activities and the achievement that results. Feedback regarding one's effectiveness is positively associated with perceived locus of causality, proficiency and intrinsic motivation.

When assessment is carried out systematically and in a purpose manner and the feedback of such is given immediately, it can go a long way in correcting any anomaly in the teaching-learning continuum. In the past, student often do hasty and last minute preparation towards final examinations. This neither helps them to have a thorough grasp of the learning experiences nor does it allow the teacher to apply remedial measures to the areas of deficiency or improve on his teaching methods.

However, using school based assessment appropriately, students study more frequently and retain what they study for longer period of time. This generally improves their learning which goes a long way in motivating them to study further.

2(c) Benjamin Bloom et al classified all educational objectives into three, namely: cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.

1. Cognitive Objectives/Domain(s)
Are the learning outcomes or mastery which describe academic or mental work. They tend towards the intellectual aspect of learning. They emphasize knowledge, understanding and other thinking or academic tasks. The main areas of the cognitive domain are reproduced blow:

a. Knowledge:
i. Knowledge of specifies;
ii. Knowledge of terminology;
iii. Knowledge of specific facts;
iv. Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics;
v. Knowledge of trends and sequences;
vi. Knowledge of Classification and categories;
vii. Knowledge of criteria;
viii. Knowledge of Methodology;
ix. Knowledge of universal and abstractions;
x. Knowledge of principles and generalizations;
xi. Knowledge of Theories and structures.

b. Comprehension:
i. Translation;
ii. Interpretation;
iii. Explanation.

c. Application

d. Analysis:
i. Analysis of Elements;
ii. Analysis of Relationships;
iii. Analysis of organizational principles.

e. Synthesis:
i. Production of a unique communication;
ii. Production of a plan or proposed set of operations.

f. Evaluation:
i. Judgment in terms of internal evidence;
ii. Judgment in terms of external criteria.

2. Affective Learning Objectives
Affective domain relates to interests, appreciation, attitudes and values. Those learning outcomes which relate to the social life of the learner fall under the umbrella of affective behavior. They are affective because they are concerned with learners' inner minds and feelings which are not easy to see from outside.

Objectives stated in the affective domain of learning experiences are in five levels outlined below:
i. Characterization;
ii. Organization;
iii. Valuing;
iv. Responding;
v. Receiving.

3. Psychomotor Learning Objectives
This is concerned with the learners' ability to acquire and apply skills. It involves muscular and motor skills or manipulation of objects or activities using neuro-muscular co-ordination. In other words, it involves the use of the hands or legs or any other parts of the body as co-ordinated by the brain in any practical sense. Learning objectives stated in the psychomotor domain are categorized into three levels:
i. Communication;
ii. Application;
iii. Acquisition.

3(a) In constructing objective tests, the following basic principles must be borne in mind:

1. The instruction of what the candidate should do must be clear, unambiguous and precise. The tests should not confuse the candidates. They should know whether they are to choose by ticking (√) by circling (O) or shading the box in the answer sheet.

An example of a fairly unambiguous instructions are stated below: Read the instructions carefully.
i. Candidates are advised to spend only 45 minutes on each subject and attempt all questions.
ii. A multiples-choice answer sheet for the four subjects has been provided. Use the appropriate section of the answer sheet for each subject
iii. Check that the number of each questions you answer tallies with the number shaded on your answer sheet.
iv. Use an HB Pencil only (throughout).

2. The options (or alternatives) must be discriminating: some may be obviously wrong but there must be options that are closely competing with the correct option in terms of characteristics, related concept or component parts. Let us consider an example given below

Choose the option opposite in meaning to the underlined word.

i. Albert thinks Martha is antagonistic because of her angry tone
a. noble b. hostile
c. friendly d. harsh

The correct answer that is c should not be longer or shorter than the rest, i.e. the incorrect options. Differences in length of options may call the attention of the candidate. The stem of an item must clearly state the problem. The options should be brief.

ii. As much as possible, the alternatives should be difficult to guess. Guessing reduces the validity of the test and makes undeserved candidates pass with no academic effort. The distractions must be plausible, adequate and attractive. They should be related to the stem.

iii. Only one option must be correct as two or more correct answers may confuse a brilliant student and cause undeserved failure.

iv. The objective tests should be based on the syllabus, what is taught, or expected to be taught. It must provoke deep reasoning, critical thinking, and value judgements.

v. Negative statements in the stem of an item should be avoided. When used, the teacher should underline the negative word,

vi. Every item should be independent of other items

vii. Phrases like "all of the above, all of these, none of these or none of the above" should be avoided.

viii. The reading difficulty and vocabulary level must be as simple as possible.

3(b) Five purposes for which test are being constructed in schools are:

i. Tests are constructed in schools for placing students at a particular level, school, or college;

ii. Tests are designed to be able to predict the learning outcomes of the students. A predicative test is able to predict or forecast that if the student is able to pass a particular test, he/she will be able to carry out a particular task, skill, course, action or programme;

iii. Tests are constructed in schools to determine the aptitude of a student for a particular task, course, programme, job, etc;

iv. Tests are constructed in schools for determining the problems of a student in particular area, task, course, or programme. Diagnostic tests also bring out areas of difficulty of a student for the purpose of remediation;

v. Tests are designed to measure the progress of students in a continuous manner. Such tests are taken intermittently and students' progress measured regularly. The cumulative scores of students in continuous assessment often form part of the overall assessment of the students in the course or subject.

4(a) Test Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure or a test is suitable for the purposes for which it is intended.

4(b) There are different kinds of validity to look for in a test, these include:
i. Content validity;
ii. Face validity;
iii. Criterion - Referenced validity;
iv. Predictive validity;
v. Construct validity; and
vi. Concurrent validity.

4(c) (Repeated Question 2010, No. 3(a)).

Guidelines for Scoring an Essay Test

i. Essay types of tests are relatively easy to set and administer, especially in a large class. They are, however, difficult to mark or assess. The reason is because easy questions require a lot of writing of sentences and paragraphs. The examiner must read all these.

ii. Scoring or marking an essay test on impression is dangerous. Some students are very good at impressing examiners with flowery language without real academic substance. If an examiner marks on impression, he may be carried away by the language and not the relevant facts. Again, mode may change. Impression, the examiner's impression can be changed by joy, sadness, tiredness, time of the day etc. that is why he must always insist on a comprehensive marking scheme.

iii. All essay tests must have marking schemes. Marking schemes are the guide for marking any test. They consist the points, demands and issues that must be raised before the candidate can be said to have responded satisfactorily to the test. Marking schemes should be drawn before testing not after the test has been taken. They should carry mark allocation and also indicate scoring points and how the scores for the question or the test.

iv. Scoring can be done question-by-question or all questions at a time. The best way is to score or mark one question across the board for all students. Sometimes, this may be feasible and tedious, especially in a large class.

v. Scores can be interpreted into grades A,B,C,D,E and F. They may be interpreted in terms of percentages: 10%, 20%, 50%, etc. Scores may be presented in a comparative way in terms of 1st Position, 2nd Position and 3rd Position to the last. Scores can be coded in what is called BAND. In band system, certain criteria are used to determine those who will be in excellent, very good categories etc.

5(bi) The Item discrimination index shows how a test item discriminates between the bright and the dull students. A test with many poor questions will give a false impression of the learning situation. Usually, a discrimination index of 0.4 and above are acceptable. Items which discriminate negatively are bad. This may be because of wrong keys, vagueness or extreme difficulty, the formular for discrimination index is:
U - L or U - L
½ N 0.5N

Where,
U = The number of students that got it right in upper group;
L = The number of students that got it right in the lower group;
N = The number of students usually involved in the item analysis.

To carry out Item Analysis:
i. arrange the scored papers in order of merit - highest and lowest;
ii. select the upper 33%;
iii. select the lower 33%;
iv. item by item, calculate the number of students that got each item correct in each group;
v. estimate.

(a) Item difficulty = U + L
N

(b) Item discrimination index = U - L
½ N

5(bii) Item Difficulty Index
Item difficulty index gives information about the difficulty level of a question. By difficulty level we mean the number of candidates that got a particular item right in any given test.

An item with an index of 0 is too difficult, hence everybody missed it while that of 1 is too easy as everybody got it right. Items with index of 0.5 are usually suitable for inclusion in a test.

Though the items with indices 0 and 1 may not really contribute to an achievement test, they are good for the teacher in determining how well the students are doing in that particular area of the content being tested. Hence, such items could be included.

Item difficulty, P, is given by = n x 100 where
N
P = item difficult;
n = the number of students who got item correct;
N = The number of students involved in the test.

Hence, the index of difficulty (difficulty level) is given by:
U + L
N
Where N is the number of students actually involved in the item analysis (Upper 1/3 + lower 1/3 of the tests).

i. Mean:
This is the average of all the scores and it is obtained by adding the scores together and dividing the sum by the number of scores.
Means = X̄ Sum of all scores
Number of scores

Though the mean is influenced by deviant scores, it is very important in that it takes into cognizance the relative size of each score in the distribution and it is also useful for other statistical calculations.

ii. Median
This is the middle score after all the scores have been arranged in order of magnitude i.e. 50% of the score are on either side of it. Median is very good where there are deviant or extreme scores in a distribution, however, it does not take the relative size of all the scores into consideration. Also, it cannot be used for further statistical computations.

For example, consider the scores 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 80, 95.
43 is the median and is the most typical score.

iii. Mode
The mode is the most frequent or popular score in the population. This is usually evident during the drawing of frequency tables. The use of the mode is most often associated with discrete variables. In case of continuous variables, the mode is the value where the frequency density is highest. In a frequency table, it is the interval containing the largest number of observations. In the histogram, the modal group is the one corresponding to the highest rectangle.

Mode is not frequently used as the median and mean in the classroom because it can fall anywhere along the distribution of scores (top, middle, or bottom) and a distribution may have more than one mode.

iv. Range
The range is usually taken as the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a set of distribution. It is completely dependent on the extreme scores and may give a wrong picture of the variability in the distribution. It is the simplest measure of variability.
For example, consider the distribution 7, 2, 3, 4, 9, 14, 16, 6, 8.
The range = highest score - lowest score, which is 16 - 2 = 14.
The range may be inclusive or exclusive.

v. Standard Deviation
This is the square root of the mean of the squared deviations. The mean of the squared deviations is called the variance (S²). The deviation is the difference between each score and the mean.

Standard Deviation, SD = √(Σx²/N)

Where, x = X - X̄ = deviation of each score from the mean

N = Number of scores.

The standard Deviation is the most reliable of all measures of variability and lend itself for use in other statistical calculations. To compute the standard deviation;
i. find the mean (m);
ii. find the deviation (X - m) and square each;
iii. sum up the squares and divide by the number of the population (N);
iv. find the positive square root.

6(bi) To calculate mean, we develop a frequency table shown below:

X | FREQUENCY (F) | FX
23 | 2 | 46
24 | 1 | 24
25 | 3 | 75
27 | 2 | 54
29 | 1 | 29
30 | 1 | 30
32 | 1 | 32
33 | 2 | 66
35 | 3 | 105
36 | 1 | 36
37 | 1 | 37
40 | 1 | 40
41 | 2 | 82
42 | 1 | 42
43 | 2 | 86
45 | 2 | 90
47 | 1 | 47
48 | 1 | 48
50 | 2 | 100
51 | 4 | 204
52 | 1 | 52
55 | 1 | 55
56 | 1 | 56
57 | 3 | 171
| 40 | 1,607

Mean (x) = ΣFX / ΣF = 1,607 / 40
= 40.175
Mean ≈ 40.18 to 2 S.F.

Arranging the numbers in ascending order
23, 23, 24, 25, 25, 25, 27, 27, 29, 30, 32,
33, 33, 35, 35, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 41, 42,
43, 43, 45, 45, 47, 48, 50, 50, 51, 51, 51, 51,
52, 55, 56, 57, 57, 57.

Median is the middle score after all the scores have been arranged in order of magnitude = (41 + 41) / 2 = 82 / 2
Median = 41.

Mode = 51, this is the score with the highest frequency (observation). The mode is unique.

YEAR: 2013 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
(PDE 705)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. a. Enumerate any five (5) characteristics of a continuous assessment. [10 marks]
b. Explain four (4) ways dishonest teachers can abuse the practice of continuous assessment. [15 marks]

2. a. Outline four (4) steps necessary in planning a test. [8 marks]
b. State and explain any four (4) methods of estimating reliability. [17 marks]

3. a. Define the term "Continuous Assessment". [5 marks]
b. Explain any four (4) problems militating against the success of continuous assessment practice in Nigeria. [20 marks]

4. Explain each of the following: (i) Construct validity;
(ii) Internal consistency reliability; (iii) Inter-rater reliability
(iv) Intra-rater reliability; and (v) Criterion referenced validity. [25 marks]

5. Discuss the differences between traditional and modern practices of classroom. [25 marks]

6. a. Explain the difference between discrete point test and integrative test. [7 marks]
b. Enumerate five (5) characteristics of a good test. [10 marks]
c. Suggest any four (4) reasons why variety testing is important. [8 marks]

1(a) Characteristics of Continuous Assessment:

i. In most cases, continuous assessment tests are periodical, systematic, and well-planned. They should not be tests organized in a haphazard manner.

ii. Continuous assessment tests can be in any form. They may be oral, written, practical, announced, or unannounced, multiple choice, objective, essay, or subjective etc.

iii. Continuous assessment tests are often based on what has been learnt within a particular period. Thus, they should be a series of tests.

iv. In Nigerian educational system, continuous assessment tests are part of the scores used to compute the overall performance of students. In most cases, they are 40% of the final score. The final examination often carries 60%.

v. Continuous assessment tests are designed and produced by the classroom teacher. Some continuous assessment tests are centrally organized for a collection of schools or for a particular state.

1(b) Ways dishonest teachers can abuse the use of continuous assessment tests:

i. Exposing continuous assessment tests to massive examination malpractices, e.g. giving the test to favoured students before hand, inflating marks, or recording marks for continuous assessment not conducted or splitting one continuous assessment test score for four or five to represent separate continuous assessment tests, etc.

ii. Scoring or marking continuous assessment test on impression is dangerous. Some students are very good at impressing examiners with flowery language without real academic substance. Examiner marking on impression may be carried away by the language and not the relevant facts thereby abusing the use of the test to favour some students.

iii. By inflating the marks of the continuous assessment tests so that undeserving students can pass the final examinations and be given certificates not worked for.

iv. Conducting few (less than appropriate) continuous assessment tests and thus making the process not a continuous or progressive one.

2(a) Planning for a test involves the following basic steps:
i. Outlining content and process objectives;
ii. Choosing what will be covered under each combination of content and process objectives;
iii. Assigning percentage of the total test by content area and by process objectives and getting an estimate of the total number of items;
iv. Choosing the type of item format to be used and an estimate of the number of such items per cell of the test blue print.

2(b) (Repeated Question 2011, No. 5(b))

3(a) Continuous Assessment can be defined as a mechanism whereby the final grading of a student in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of behavior takes account in a systematic way, of all his performances during a given period of schooling. Such an assessment involves the use of a great variety of models of evaluation for the purpose of finding and improving the learning and performance of the students. (Federal Ministry of Education handbook on continuous Assessment, 1985) or according to Ezewu and Okoye (1981), continuous assessment is a systematic and objective process of determining the extent of a student's performances and all the expected changes in behavior from the day he enters into a course of study in a continuous and progressive manner to the end of such a course of study and a judicious accumulation of all pieces of information derived from this purpose, with a view to using them to guide and shape the student in his learning from time to time and to serve as bases for important decision about the child.

3(b) Problems of Continuous Assessment Practice in Nigeria:

i. Inadequacy of qualified teachers in the respective fields to cope with the large number of students in the classroom. Some time ago, the Minister of Education lamented the population of students in classrooms in some parts of the country. Population explosion has adversely affected the implementation of continuous assessment in our classroom.

ii. The pressure to cover a large part of the curricula, probably owing to the demand of external examinations, often makes teachers concentrate more on teaching than conducting continuous assessment. There is no doubt that such teachings are not likely to be very effective without any form of formative evaluation.

iii. The differences in the quality of tests and scoring procedures used by different teachers may render the results of continuous assessment incomparable. Some teachers score or mark scripts on impression, this is dangerous. Some students are very good at impressing examiners with flowery language without real academic substance. Such examiners are carried away by the language and not the relevant facts. This go a long way to affect the quality of continuous assessment tests.

iv. Another problem of continuous assessment is the exposition of such tests to massive examination malpractices, e.g giving the test to favoured students before hand, inflating marks, or recording marks for continuous assessment not conducted or splitting one continuous assessment test score to four or five to represent separate continuous assessment tests, etc.

i. Construct Validity
This refers to how accurately a given test actually describes an individual in terms of a stated psychological trait.

A test designed to test feminity should show women performing better than males in tasks usually associated with women. If this is not so, then the assumptions on which the test was constructed are not valid.

ii. Internal Consistency Reliability
This is a measure of the degree to which different examiners or test raters agree in their evaluation of the student's ability. Internal consistency assesses the consistency of results across items within a test. The most common internal consistency measure is Cronbach's alpha, which is usually interpreted as the mean of all possible split-half coefficients. Internal consistency reliability is said to be high when the degree of agreement between the raters is high or very close and vice versa.

iii. Inter-rater Reliability (Inter-Observer Reliability)
Inter-rater reliability is the degree of agreement between two or more raters of a test. inter-rater reliability is said to be high when the degree of agreement between the raters is high or very close. It gives a score of how much homogeneity or consensus, there is in the ratings given by raters. If various raters do not agree either the test is defective or the raters need to be re-trained.

There are a number of statistics which can be used to determine inter-rater reliability which include: joint probability of agreement, Cohen's Kappa and the related Fleiss' Kappa, inter-rater correlation etc.

iv. Intra-Rater Reliability
Intra-rater (One rater rating scripts at different points in time or at different intervals) reliability is the degree to which a marker making a subjective rating of say an essay or procedure or construction gives the same evaluation on two or more occasions.

v. (Repeated question (2010, No. 5b (iii))

Old Traditional Assessment Practices comprised mainly of tests and examinations administered periodically, either fortnightly or monthly. Terminal assessment were administered at the end of term, year of course, hence its being called a 'one-shot assessment. This system of assessment had the following shortings:
i. It puts so much into a single examination;
ii. It was unable to cover all that was taught within the period the examination was covered;
iii. Schools depended so much on the result to determine the fate of pupils;
iv. It caused a lot of emotional strains on the students;
v. It was limited a student's cognitive gains only;
vi. Its administration periodically, tested knowledge only;
vii. Learning and teaching were regarded as separate processes in which, only learning could be assessed;
viii. It did not reveal students' weakness early enough to enable teacher to help students overcome them;
ix. Achievements were as a result of comparing marks obtained;
x. It created unhealthy competition which led to all forms of malpractices.

While Modern Practice of classroom assessment is a method of improving teaching and learning processes using modern teaching techniques adequately. It has the following characteristics:

i. It forms the basis for guidance and counseling in the school;
ii. Teaching and learning and mutually related;
iii. Teaching is assessed when learning is and vice-versa;
iv. Assessment is an integral and indispensable part of the teaching-learning process, and learning processes can be perceived and confirmed through continuous assessment;
vi. It evaluates students in areas of learning other than the cognitive unlike the tradition practice of classroom assessment.

a. Difference between discrete point test and integrative test.
A discrete point test, measures or tests on one item, structure, skill, or idea, at a time while in integrative test, various items, structures, discourse types, pragmatic forms, construction types, skills, etc. are tested simultaneously.

There are many examples of a discrete point test, for language tests, a discrete point test may be testing the meaning of a particular word, a grammatical item, the production of a sound, e.g. long or short vowels, filling in a gap with a particular item, etc. in a mathematics test, it may be testing the knowledge of a particular multiplication table etc. For example fill the box with the correct answer of the multiplication stated below:
12 x 7 = [ ]

Only one item and that is '84' can fill the box. This is a discrete point test. All tests involving fill in blanks, matching, completion, etc. are often discrete point tests.

While in integrative tests, examples include essay tests, close tests, reading comprehension tests, working of a mathematical problem that requires the application of many skills, or construction types that require different skills and competencies. For example, a student may be required to fill in the words deleted in this passage.

First, he has to understand the _____________ as the speaker says _____________ He must not stop the _________ in order to look up a __________________ or an unfamiliar sentence.

The test requires many skills of the student to be able to fill in the gaps. The student needs to be able to read the passage, comprehend it, think of the appropriate vocabulary items that will fill in the blanks, learn the grammatical forms, tense and aspects in which the passage is written unlike in discrete points test. When the student tests these many skills at once, he is testing integratively.

6(b) (Repeated Question 2010, No. 5(a)).

6(c) Variety in testing is crucial (important) because:
i. it allows tests to cover a large area;
ii. it makes tests authentic;
iii. variety brings out the total knowledge of the learner; and
iv. with a variety of tasks, the performance of the learner can be better assessed.

YEAR: 2014 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
(PDE 705)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. a. Define Continuous Assessment [5 marks]
b. Explain any five (5) features of continuous assessment [20 marks]

2. Write short notes on each of the following
(a) Content Validity; (b) Face Validity (c) Construct Validity
(d) Test-Retest Method (e) Alternate-Form Method. [25 marks]

3. a. Explain the term 'evaluation'.
b. Distinguish between formative and summative evaluation. [25 marks]

4. If in an objective test of 50 questions where guessing is prohibited, a candidate attempted all and got 40. Calculate the actual score of the candidate after correction formula is used.
[25 marks]

5. Identify and explain any five (5) specific purposes tests. [25 marks]

6. Calculate
(i) Mean; (ii) The mean deviation; and (iii) The standard deviation of the following scores: 20, 35, 40, 50 and 65.
[25 marks]

1. Sociology of education is defined as a study of the relations between education and society. It is an analysis of the sociological processes involved in an educational institution.

Ottaway (1962), opined that it is a social study and in so far as its method is scientific, it is a branch of social science. It is concerned with educational aims, methods, institutions, administration and curricula in relation to the economic, political, religious, social and cultural forces of the society in which they function.

As far as the education of the individual is concerned, sociology of education focuses on the influence of social life and social relationships on the development of personality.

Thus, sociology of education emphasizes sociological aspects of educational phenomena and institutions. The problems encountered are regarded as essentially problems of sociology and not problems of educational practice.

This view of sociology of education is different from the concept of educational sociology which is seen as the application of general principles and findings of sociology to the administration and or processes of education.

This approach attempts to apply principles of sociology to the institutions of education as a separate societal unit. The problems of educational sociology are derived from the field of education.

The content of the sociology of education therefore included such general concept as the society itself, accommodation, assimilation, cultural lag, sub culture, states etc. Such other considerations as the effect of the polity and economy on education, the social forces and determinants that effect educational and cultural changes, the social institutions involved in the educational process – the family, the school and the Church, various problems of role structure and role analysis in relation to the total social system and the micro-society of the school; the school viewed as a formal organization, involving such problems as authority, selection, the organization of learning and streaming; the relationship between social class, culture and language, and between education and occupation, and problems of democratization and elitism, and fall within the purview of sociology of education.

The position that each group of thinkers adopted from which they view society determined how they interpreted it and what they regarded as the most important aspects of social life.

This position from which the thinkers approached the study of social life is what is called "PERSPECTIVE".

A perspective can thus be defined, as Meiglian (1986) did, as "a frame of reference, a series of working rules by which a person is able to make sense of complex and puzzling phenomena (P.227). As Meighan further explained, for the sociologist, the phenomenon referred to in this definition is social life, and in taking a particular position towards its study, he or she makes a set of assumptions upon which analysis can be based and which, typically include ideas about the nature of human beings, of society and of the interaction between the individual and society.

2 (a) Social stratification means the way the society is divided into layers or social strata. Certain groups of people are socially superior to others. Moreover, it means social inequalities of wealth, power and prestige that result from social rank. Social stratification can also be explained in terms of the division of a population into unequal layers or strata based on income, wealth, gender, ethnicity, power, status, age or religion.

According to Marx Weber (1947), stratification has three (3) separate elements which are as follows:

(i) Class: This refers to a person's location in a society's economic system resulting in differences in the nature of work, income and wealth. Class position in society is a strong determinant of what one's life style is. The concept of class is also used to differentiate the population on grounds of economic considerations such as inequality in terms of wealth or income.

(ii). Status: This refers to a person's relationship to established social position in society that vary in terms of prestige. Status also concerns the respect and differences given to individuals and groups. It can be achieved and may also be linked to occupations. However, other kinds of status are:
(a). Family background status;
(b). Ascribed Status:- old people have higher status than young ones, males have higher respect than females;
(c). Religious leaders are accorded high status even if they are poor;
(d). Occupation e.g. University Professors and Dons have high status while labourers have not;

(iii). Power: This means one's relationship to governmental and other political institutions, which will affect other people. For example, the Headmaster has political power both in school and outside the school. The teachers and pupils are under him and he can take decisions that affect their future.

Another role of the Headmaster is the outside role, which is in the community.

2(b) The advantages of children from high socio-economic backgrounds in education are:

(i) As a result of the financial position of parents under this class, they can afford to buy facilities and materials for their children. Thus, learning is made easy and effective.

(ii) Early Enrolment in School: Parents with higher socio-economic status give their children an early start in education by enrolling them in nursery schools. This gives such children an edge over those who are not privileged to have an early start as it helps the children to be familiar with the school and the environment as well as its academic aspects like the learning of certain concepts such as 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10; etc. And A,B,C,D to Z, as well as skills such as how to hold pen, how to draw, paint and write.

(iii) Children from high socio-economic backgrounds in education are more likely to attend the most prestigious schools because their parents have the strength to bear the cost of qualitative private education. Such schools are usually known for:
- having adequate teaching and learning facilities;
- having qualified teaching staff;
- have a high sense of commitment to work;
- have good teaching and learning environment;
- known to have high educational performance leading to opportunity for university or high education which at the end of the day provides good occupational opportunities and high income living.

(iv) Children from such high socio-economy backgrounds are more likely to be encouraged and motivated. Furthermore, to having an early start in education, they are also known to enjoy other privileges at home such as the following:
- going to school early because they have no other duty than to bath and prepare for school;
- parents check their children's books after school hours;
- parents praise them for hardworking performance;
- parents employ extra-lesson teachers for their children.

5(a) Feminist theory which is another brand of conflict perspective, has been aptly described by Ritzer, (1996) as "the system of general ideas designed to describe and explain human social experiences from a women-centred vantage point" (p. 444). There are, as noted by Ritzer, many different versions of feminism but most share common elements.

Ritzer (1996) cites three questions that govern and write all the varieties of contemporary feminist theory.
(i). "the descriptive question, and what about women?
(ii). "the explanatory question, why then is all this as it is?", and
(iii). "the qualifying question, what about the differences among women?" (P.444).

Using the response pattern to the first of these three questions, i.e. and what about the women?

Ritzer went further to categories feminist theory into four types as follows:

(a) Gender Difference:- This category emphasis the differences between men and women in terms of their location in, and experience of, most situations.

(b). Gender Inequality:- This category stresses the women's location in most situations is not only different from that of man, but is also less privileged and unequal.

(c). Gender Oppression: This category promotes the view that women are, in addition to being different from and unequal to oppressed and actively restrained, subjugated, moulded as well as, used and abused by men.

(d). Third-Wave Feminism:- The fourth category argues that women's experience of difference, inequality and oppression varies by their social location.

Feminists concern themselves with the division in the society between men and women.

5(b) The major application of Marxist analysis to the study of education has assured two paths.

Bowles and Gintis (1976), for example, represent those who have made an attempt to explore the structural 'fit' between the education system and the economic order. They identified a number of features of schooling in modern capitalist societies, which they squared up with social relations of work roles and concluded that education has a vital role in preparing individuals for their roles in the world of work (Meighan, 1986). Thus, in their view education functions both as a transmission and a control mechanism in the reproduction of the social relations, which sustain the capitalist mode of production.

The bureaucratic and hierarchical structure of the school is perceived by Bowles and Gintis as the main factor influencing the subordination of young children. The power of the teacher in shaping his pupils identities and in creating a stratification system within the classroom reflects this process of nurturing and socialization of young children into the subservient culture of the work place.

On the other hand, Bourdien and Passeron (1977); Willis (1977) and Apple (1980) represent those who have attempted to uncover the ways in which certain cultural beliefs and practices that support capitalist society are created, transmitted and reproduced within schools. In this sense, schooling is seen not merely as a process for socializing young children into the culture of the work place; but rather as a phenomenon which is closely related to the distribution of resources and opportunities in society (Meighan, 1986). The education system then becomes an instrument manipulated by those in power to perpetuated their positions and legitimise the ideology that maintains them in those positions. This examplified by the state's action in taken control of not only the educational institutions but also the type of knowledge that is provided in these institutions.

(6) The family has a hold on the life of its members for life particularly in African set up. This is probably because of the strength of the ties formed among very strong.

The child learns to play appropriate roles and acquires abilities, attitudes and modes of response that enable him to participate in social life in the larger society from the family. Thus, his personality is shaped and the cultural demands and expectations are transmitted.

The functions of the family are child bearing, childrearing and primary socialization. The ability of the families to do this differs. This is because families also differ vastly in terms of their significance in the social order. They also differ in terms of social status – prestige, economic strength, and political power.

Owing to this varying social-economic-status, some families are better placed to help members of their family move high in the social strata. What the modern family can teach a child therefore depends mostly on the cultural background and socio-economic status of that family; therefore of paramount importance for the socialization of its children within the framework of societal demands. It has been known to determine children's ascribed roles and statuses in the society.

Experiments and studies in education have also shown that:
- There is a positive relationship between the level of educational and occupational aspirations of the child and the social status of the family;
- Parental encouragement, regardless of the social status of the family, has a significant influence of raising educational aspirations;
- School achievement is positively associated with the socio-economic status of the child's family;
- How the child responds to school is highly depended on his attitudes and behaviour already inculcated in the child in the early years at home.

Owing to these varying family backgrounds also, the school may not work perfectly in harmony with the family in socializing the child. The teacher must recognize this fact and take cognizance of the role of family in the education of the child. The purpose of the school and the family are intertwined so the school must utilize this to the advantage of the child.

YEAR: 2011 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION (PDE 709)

INSTRUCTIONS:
(i) This is a two (2) unit course.
(ii) Answer any FOUR (4) questions.
(iii) All questions carry equal marks.

TIME: 2 HRS

(1). Explain in details the meaning of sociology of education?

(2). Justify the place of sociological perspective in explaining educational issues.

(3). (a) Define the concept culture and explain any six (6) of its characteristics
(b) Discuss the relationship between culture and education.

(4). (a) What do you understand by the concept 'socialization'
(b) Discuss the influence of family and school as agents socialization.

(5). (a) What is bureaucracy?
(b) State any FIVE (5) characteristics of bureaucracy and examine the extent to which the school exhibits these characteristics.

(6). Critically examine the relationship between the society, culture and education.

Sociology of education is defined as a study of the relations between education and society. It is an analysis of the sociological processes involved in an educational institution.

To Ottaway (1962), it is a social study and in so far as its method is scientific, it is a branch of social science. It is concerned with educational aims, methods, institutions, administration and curricula in relation to the economic, political, religious, social and cultural forces of the society in which they function.

In as much as the education of the individual is concerned, sociology of education focuses on the influence of social life and social relationships on the development of personality – Thus sociology of education emphasizes sociological aspects of education phenomena and institutions. The problems encountered are regarded as essentially problems of sociology and not problem of educational practice.

3(a) Culture refers to way of life of the community.
The term "culture" was derived from the German word "Kulture" which implies civilization. Taylor, (1902) defined culture as that complex whole which included knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities acquired by men as a member of society. This definition sees culture as an entity which is common to all societies. Sharing this kind of view is Reuter (1950) who also defined culture as the sum total of human creation, the organised results of group experience up to the present time, adding that culture included all that man had made in the form of tools, weapons, shelters and other material goods, all that he had elaborated in the way of attitudes and beliefs, ideas and judgements, codes and institutions, arts and science, philosophy and social organisation. Linton (1947) defined culture as the configuration of learned behaviour and the results of behaviour whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society.

Six (6) Characteristics of Culture
Ezewu (1983) identified six characteristics of culture as follows:

(a). Culture is Organic and Supra-Organic.
It is organic because it is made up of human beings and supra-organic because it transcends the life-span of any given individual of that society.

(b). Culture is Overt and Covert.
When the ideals, world view and attitude towards nature of the culture is considered, it is covert. It is overt when its artefacts, speech forms, etc are considered.

(c). Culture is Explicit and Implicit
When we consider things we do and believe in but can in no way explained. Then that aspect of culture is implicit. However, there are some roles played and actions taken when participants can easily explain. Such actions make culture explicit.

(d). Culture is Ideal and Manifest
Idea culture involves the way people ought to behave or what they believe they ought to do.
The actions people take or things they do that people can recognise or see them do make culture to be manifest.

(e). Culture is Stable and yet changing in order to maintain the norms and values of the society, they are passed on from generation to generation. Often, some aspects of the culture are considered no longer relevant or have to be changed when in contact with other cultures.

(f). Culture is Shared and Learned
Individuals born into a culture through interaction imbibes that culture. The rate at which individuals imbibe culture is different even though it is a common right. This can be explained that they learnt at different rates. Cultures can therefore be learnt.

3(b) To clearly understanding the relationship between culture and education, may we defined education according to various authors, R.S. Peters sees it as the process of initiation of the young into the culture of the particular society. D.J.O. Connor (1957) defines it as a process by which the society through schools, colleges and other institutions, deliberately transmit its cultural heritage. John Milton on the other hand says it is that which prepares a man to perform justly, skillfully and magnanimously all the offices either at war or in peace in a given society.

From the above, it is clear that education is dependent on the culture of the society for its content. Thus, it is through the educative process that man is equipped to live in his society through the transmission of culture. However, Moorish (1972) noted that "Culture is not merely transmitted, it is made, it is not simple historical and relate to the past, it is functional and vitally concerned with the present. It is not the collective catalogue of discrete objects, ideals, morals and pieces of knowledge; it is a configuration of the total social inheritance and way of life.

It is the function of education not merely to preserve and transmit the best of the past, it must demonstrate its function in the present as well as its possibilities for the feature and ultimately, it must seek to provide a total view of society and its purposes.

4(a) Socialization is the process by which persons acquire the knowledge, skills and disposition that make them more or less integrated members of their society. It is through the process of socialization that members learn certain habits, traditions, knowledge, skills, norms, and values which the society considers important.

Socialization continues through a person's life. It entails both the transmission of the socio and cultural heritage and the development of personality. Zanden (1977) pointed out that in the absence of socialization, society could not perpetuate itself beyond a single generation and culture would be non-existent.

4(b) Influence Of Family And School As Agent Of Socialization
The family in the African setting includes the parent, brothers, and sisters of the couple and the children of their brothers and sisters. The concept of family is the fundamental biological and social institution into which a child is born and where the child's primary socialization takes place.

The family has a hold on life of its members for life particularly in Africa. This is probably because of the strength of the ties formed among members of the same family.

The child learns to play appropriate roles and acquire abilities, attitudes and modes of response that enable him to participate in social life in the larger society from the family. Thus, his personality is shaped and the cultural demands and expectations are transmitted.

The school is for a formal and planned social institution with rules and regulations and specifically charged with the responsibility of preserving, improving and extending the culture by showing appreciation to it and adherence to its norms. The basic function of the school in the socialization of the child is the development of the cognitive abilities.

The school is designed to use its curriculum as a major instrument to transmit on to the child and possibly reinforce the skills, practical knowledge, important culture values norms, patriotism and loyalty, lesson of obedience, ambition, concern for others and so on.

It is in the school that the child extends the range of his human contacts and prepares himself to deal with a world infinitely more complex than his own family.

5(a). Bureaucracy:
Bureaucracy is a component of formal organization model rationally designed to perform complex tasks efficiently. The essence of bureaucratic organization is deliberately enacting polices that control organizational operations. By doing this, the organization intends to become as efficient as possible in reaching or meeting its set goals and objectives.

5(b) Five(5) characteristics of Bureaucratic are as follows:
(i) division of labour;
(ii) hierarchy of authority;
(iii) written rules and regulations;
(iv) impersonality;
(v) employment based on technical qualification.

The school exhibits the bureaucratic characteristics as follows:
(i) Schools and colleges employs specialized personal or staff who are recruited on the basis of expertise and qualifications;
(ii) Schools have a hierarchy of positions and a formal structure of authority involving specific lines of commands from the head of school e.g. Headmaster, Principal, Provost, Rector, Vice-chancellor, e.t.c) downward (e.g Labourers, Cleaners, Messengers, Cooks e.t.c);
(iii) All schools and colleges have rules and regulations governing the conduct of behaviour. There are rules and regulations governing the conduct of students on the other hand, and another set of rules governing the conduct of teachers on the other hand;
(iv) Schools and Colleges have teachers who are provided with specialist courses for the age range that they teach. For example, in the teacher education programme, pre-service;
(vi) Teachers are taught courses that are geared towards the production of competent teachers full of technical qualifications such as sociology of education, educational psychology, philosophy of education curriculum studies e.t.c.

Obviously, a society has a set of aims, norms and values to which all members subscribe and they are to some extent conscious of the direction in which they may want them to change. It is the role of education to develop the personality of the child not only for this purpose but also to prepare him for membership of his society. The individual in the society can only be who he is, at any stage of his development, by interacting with the social and physical environment. Education can therefore not take place in a vacuum.

Personality is regarded as an organised whole and all inclusive comprising the physical, mental, emotional and spiritual characteristics subsumed in this definition. The children are born with some innate qualities bestowed on them by heredity. Personality development depends partly on these innate factors and partly on the environment. The education of individuals therefore depends on these factors. Education is seen as the whole life of a community viewed from the particular standpoint of learning to live the life. This total way of life a community is regarded as the culture of that community. Culture is therefore content of education.

Thus, the social environment influences the education of the child, his or her genetic construction not withstanding and vice-versa. Education is also determined by the culture of the community.

It is the function of education not merely to preserve and transmit the best the past, it must demonstrate its function in the present as well as its possibility for the future, and ultimately it must seek to provide a total view of society and its purposes.

YEAR: 2012 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION (PDE 709)

INSTRUCTIONS
i) This is a two (2) credit course.
ii) Answer four(4) questions.
iii) All questions carry equal marks.

TIME: 2Hours

1. (a) Examine the term socialization and discuss its importance.
(b) Discuss four agents of socialization.

2. (a) What is social mobility?
(b) Briefly explain vertical and horizontal mobility.

3. (a) Explain the concept of Bureaucracy.
(b) Outline four characteristics of Bureaucracy as apply to the school.

4. (a) Mention three goals and objectives of school as an institution.
(b) For a society to persist or continue, it must have or fulfill certain attributes or characteristics. Name and explain three of them.

5. (a) Define the concept social stratification.
(b) Identify and explain three elements of social stratification.

6. (a) Describe the codes of conduct that holds the society together.
(b) Describe the relationship between the education and society.

1(a) Socialization is the process by which persons acquire the knowledge, skills and disposition that make them more or less integrated members of their society. It is through the process of socialization that members learn certain habits, traditions, knowledge, skills, norms and values which the society considers important.

Socialization continuous through a person's life. It entails both the transmissions of the socio and cultural heritage and the development of personality. Zanden (1977) pointed out that in the absence of socialization, society generation and culture would be non-existent.

Pevetomode (1995) listed the following as the importance of socialization:
(i) Providing the foundation for the individuals effective participation in society;
(ii) It inculcates basic discipline in the individual such as respect for elders, toilet habits; etc;
(iii) It instills aspiration in societal members;
(iv) It provides individuals with identities largely through the aspiration it encourages or discourages;
(v) It provides for the stability, persistence and continuity of the culture from one generation to the other;
(vi) It makes minimum, initial communication and interaction possible by providing for members to possess specific skills, values, internal behavioral dispositions etc.

1(b) Four Agents Of Socialization:

(i) The Peer Group
The peer group or age grade comprises of persons roughly the same age. Though the peer group is not an established institution like the school or the family, it has its customs and organization.

The peer group can also be define as one composed of members of roughly equal age, sharing equal status as well and pursuing some interests in common.

(ii) The Church and the Mosque.
The church and the mosque are socio-religious institutions in the society that help individuals satisfy the spiritual dimension of their needs. They are interested in the moral aspects of personality development of not only the children but the adults too. These religious institutions affect and influence the economic, political orientation, beliefs, values, intellectual and social growth of their members through their practices, preachings and teachings.

(iii) The School.
The school is a formal and planned social institution with rules and regulations and specifically charged with the responsibility of preserving, improving and extending the culture by showing appreciation to it and adherence to its norm. The basic function of the school in the socialization of the child is in the development of the cognitive abilities.

(iv) The Mass Media:
The media of communication include books, magazines, newspapers, posters in public places, advertising billboards, films, television, the radio and the word wide web (www)- the internet.

Question 2
(a) What is social mobility?
(b) Briefly explain vertical and horizontal mobility.

Answer 2
2(a) Social Mobility:
Social mobility means the stratification system, particularly as a result of changes in occupation, wealth or income. It is the movement of an individual from one social stratum to another within the occupation, class structure or society.

2 (b)Vertical And Horizontal Mobility:
Vertical mobility means the movement of individuals from one social stratum to another social stratum. This type of mobility includes both upward mobility and downward mobility. Upward mobility is an increase in occupational status, moving to higher and more prestigious positions. While the downward mobility is a decrease in occupational status, from someone who is working to an unemployed person.

Horizontal mobility refers to the movement of individuals within a social stratum. In other words, it is a change in occupation that involves no change in status, for example, auto-worker to steel-worker. Horizontal mobility is also known as lateral mobility.

Question 3
(a) Explain the concept of Bureaucracy
(b) Outline four characteristics of Bureaucracy as apply to the school.

Answer 3
3(a) Bureaucracy is a component of formal organization and it simply means an organization model rationally designed to perform complex tasks efficiently. The essence of bureaucratic organization is deliberately enacting polices that control organizational operations. By doing this, the organization intends to become as efficient as possible in reaching or meeting its set goals and objectives.

3(b) Features of bureaucracy present in school system include:
(i) Schools and colleges employ specialists;
(ii) Schools have hierarchy of positions from the school head to downward;
(iii) The presence of rules and regulations in schools and colleges;
(iv) Schools have teachers who received training in their various areas of specialization.

4 (a) Three goals and objectives of schools as an institute includes:
(i.) Cognitive Goals: The schools is expected to produce individuals equipped with empirical knowledge and mastery of technology.
(ii.) Moral or Value Goals: the school is expected to produce citizens who are equipped with the proper values for their participation in the development of the society.
(iii.) Integrative Goals: The school is expected to produce well- adjusted individuals, skilled in inter- personal relations.

4(b) For a society to persist or continue, it must have or fulfill certain attributes or characteristics, naming and explaining three of them are as follows:

(i.) A society must provide for adequate role differentiation
The stability and continuity of any given society depends to a very large extent upon the performance of particular activities by different groups in that society.

(ii.) A society must provide an effective means of communication for its members:
One of the essential elements for living in society, or community, with others is a means of communication. Communication or language provide the society with a means of socializing its members and a mechanism for role taking.

(iii.) A society must establish a shared and articulated set of goals:
The goals must be meaningful to at least the majority of people within the society. Similarly, a society must prescribe its nominative regulatory system of means. That is to say, once a society has established its goals, it must clearly define the means for the attainment of these goals.

Repeated Question (2010, No. 2 (a))

6(a) The code of conduct that holds a society together are:

(i) Cohesion:
Cohesion of social unit or the entire society refers to the resistance to division. According to Cohen (1969), Cohesion may be due to:
(a) allegiance to the larger unit;
(b) good overall coordination;
(c) mutual interest or inter-dependence;
(d) intersection of ties, and
(e) The equality and strength of ties.
Cohesion is very important for the survival of the society. Mutual interdependence and division of labour often foster cohesion.

(ii) Conformity:
There are certain norms and regulatory conditions to which all members must conform for harmony in the society. These norms ensures continued participation of individuals. There are modes of enforcing these rules and regulations. However, at the individuals level, conformity may be internally or externally motivated. These are usually borne out of the individuals attachment to the society.

(iii) Co-operation:
Co-operation within the society is a deliberate and voluntary effort to facilitate the performance of tasks by others in return for similar services. The individual may have to make personal services in favour of the common good of the society.

(iv) Participation and Interaction:
Every individual of a society has role to play. There are expectations from members in order to fulfill the aspirations of the society. Collective and individual participation of members is necessary for the survival of the society. Interaction in the society consists of a number of interrelated features such as:

(a) Purposefulness: It should be directed towards the achievement or clearly recognised and generally accepted goal of that society;
(b) It is interpersonal as members are conscious of the existence of each other;
(c) It is reflective as individuals often develop the consequences of their belonging to a group that can affect, influence or alter their attitude to themselves and to other members;
(d) Interaction is also historical in that the consequences of past or recent happenings often interfere with the interaction in the present.

6(b) Relationship Between Education and Society

A society has a set of aims, norms and values to which all members ascribe and they are to some extent conscious of the direction in which they may want them to change. It is the role of education to develop the personality of the child not only for this purpose but also to prepare him for membership of his society can only be who he is at any stage of his development, by interacting with the social and physical environment. Education can therefore not take place in a vacuum.

Personality is regarded as an organised whole and all inclusive, comprising the physical, mental, emotional and spiritual characteristics of a person. The character and temperament of individuals are subsumed in this definition. The children are born with some innate qualities bestowed on them by heredity. Personally development depends partly on these innate environment. The education of individuals therefore depends on these factors. Education is seen as the whole life of a community viewed from the particular stand point of learning to live the life. This total way of life a community is regarded as the culture of that community. Culture is therefore the content of education.

Thus, the social environment influences the education of the child, his or here genetic constitution not with standing and vice-versa.

YEAR: 2013 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION (PDE 709)

Instructions:
a. This is a Two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) Questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

TIME: 2HRS

1. Explain the concept of society and its relationship with the school. (25 marks)

2. Outline and discuss five (5) manifest and latent functions of Education. (25 marks)

3. (a) Identify any five (5) assumptions that govern structural functionalism as a sociological theory; (5marks)
(b) Describe four (4) ways by which the theory of functionalism views education. (20 marks)

4. (a) Elucidate on the concept, 'School' as a formal organization. (9 marks)
(b) State and explain any four (4) goals of the school. (16 marks)

5. Using the view of Ritzer (1996), discuss four (4) types of Feminist theory in conflict perspective. (25 marks)

6. Discuss five (5) functionalist perceptions on society and its schooling elements. (25 marks)

The concept of society is simply defined as a group of people who live in a particular territory, subjected to a common system of political authority and are aware of having a distinct identity from other groups around them. Society is also regarded as a group of persons forming a single community.

The relationship of society with the school cannot be overemphasized. Education is one of the basic activities in all human societies for the continuance of a society depends upon the transmission of its heritage to the young. It is essential that the young be instructed in the ways of the group so that they will behave according to the accepted code of behaviour of the groups. Every society therefore establishes its own ways of socializing children into the norms and values. The goals a society set for its educational system and what and how children are taught in schools all depend upon what is perceived as valuable to that society.

It is generally considered that schools like any other formal organisations are created to serve in the society and therefore they should concentrate attention and resources on the purpose for which they have been created by the society. They should serve as activities centres of the community. They should exert their influence in the community by practically demonstration those ideas and value they stand for (Dada:1971).

It is popularly accepted that the major function of school is to produce men and women who, in addition to being able to make successful living, can also adjust to society and contribute to its economic and social well being.

It is through education via schools that individuals receive knowledge and skills, which can be used to improve general standard of living in a society as a whole. For example, through both their knowledge and people processing functions the schools are able to produce the required manpower such as engineers, agriculturists, architects, doctors, lawyers and others that are important for meeting both the basic needs of society in these areas and for generating high productivity and growth in the economic section of the society. Musgrave (1978) maintains that the relationship between the school and society is essentially complementary, and outline five aspects of the relationship where this is apparent.

First, the school performs a political function at two levels:
(i) the legitimization of government and its ideology through political socialization of the citizenry; and
(ii) training and provision of political leaders at all levels of government.

Second, the school supports the economic sector of the society with highly trained and educated manpower it required for generating growth. This view of the school as pointed out by Nieto (1992) concentrates more on the labour market purpose of schooling, which almost exclusively subordinates education to the needs of the economy.

Third, and closely related to the economic function, the school performs the function of social selection through which the more able of the society are sorted out of the population. This is vital for role differentiation and role assignment and hinges on the important role education plays in stratification.

Fourth, the school helps to reproduce society through its conservative function of cultural transmission from the older to the younger generation. Young children learn about the norms, values and patterns of accepted behaviour of their society through education, both at home and at school.

According to Swift (1969), the manifest functions of education in society are:
(i) Inculcation of values and standards of the society;
(ii) Maintenance of society solidarity by developing in children a sense of belonging to the society together with a commitment to its way of life, as they understand it;
(iii) Transmission of knowledge, which comprises the social heritage;
(iv) Development of new knowledge;
(v) The provision of literacy and numeracy and specialized training for occupational competence leading to personal fulfillment and social contribution.

The latent functions of education, which are not obvious but are implied. Swift (1969) identified some of these functions as follows:
(i) it is a free baby-sitting service, separating children from their parents for regular and reasonable prolonged periods of the day and year;
(ii) It provides opportunities for children to become acquainted with a wider and more diverse circle of friends than they would otherwise reach;
(iii) It is useful marriage market because young adults sometimes choose their mates from amongst their educational peers;
(iv) It is also a means by which the supply of labour is reduced.

3 (a) Five (5) assumptions that govern structural functionalism according to Talcott (1955):
(i) Systems have the property of order and interdependence of parts;
(ii) Systems tend towards self-maintaining order, or equibrium;
(iii) The system may be static or involved in an ordered process of change;
(iv) The nature of one part of the system has an impact on the form that the other parts can take;
(v) Systems tend toward self-maintenance involving the maintenance of boundaries and of the relationships of parts to the whole, control of environmental variations, and control of tendencies to change the system from within (parson's cited in Ritzer, 1996 p.240).

3(b) Four (4) ways by which the theory of functionalism views education are:
(i) In his work Meighan (1986) gives us a hint of what functionalist analysis of education might look like and a fuller expression of the implications of viewing education by examining the relationship between the structures of society. Basic to the functionalist approach is a concern for maintenance, legitimation, transmission and internalization of the "collective conscience" that, in the functionalist's view is so central to the society's integration and survival. The system of education is seen as a means of perpetuating and reinforcing the much-desired societal homogeneity by inculcating in the child, from the beginning, the essential similarities that collective life demands (Durkheim, 1956.)
Thus, the object of education is to legitimize rather than challenge the status quo of the existing social arrangements in a given society.

(ii) Meighan (1986) goes on to illustrate the consequence of viewing education from a functionalist perspective. First, any question about the organization and process of education will have to be views in terms of education role in providing for the adequate socialization of the individual. Second, if education is to succeed in fulfilling its transmission and socialization functions, then its nature and purpose must be manipulated by society.

(iii) Meighan (1986) speaks of the way the functionalist would influence interpretations of three key areas of schooling, namely, the curriculum, the roles of teachers and pupils and interpersonal relations. In all three areas, the functionalist would find a common pattern of maintaining social order. The task of designing the curriculum involved selecting only those contents that can demonstrably be shown to be part of the common collective culture.

4 (a) In the school system there is a division of labour, power, and responsibilities, deliberately planned to achieve certain goals. Thus, in schools, specialized experts are employed in each position to perform specific tasks.

In the school system, the presence of power-centres which control the concerted efforts of the organisation and continuously review its performance, and re-pattern its structure, where necessary, so as to increase its efficiency.

In school setting, the substitution of personnel is adopted, ie. Unsatisfactory persons can be removed and other assigned their tasks and people can be transferred and promoted.

4 (b) They include:
(i) Cognitive goals; (ii) Moral or value goals;
(iii) Integrative goals; (iv) Social mobility goals.

(i) Cognitive Goals
The school is expected to produce individuals equipped with empirical knowledge and mastery of technology.

(ii) Moral or Value Goals
The school is expected to produce citizens who are equipped with the proper values for their participation in the development of the society.

(iii) Integrative Goals
The school is expected to produce well adjusted individuals, skilled in inter-personal relations.

(iv) Social Mobility Goals
The school is expected to promote upward mobility and social betterment of the individual. The social mobility goals are capable of overcoming the disadvantages of poverty, socio-culture and ethnic backgrounds.

Repeated Question (2010, No. 5 (a))

(i) The system of schooling is seen as a means of perpetuating and reinforcing the much-desired societal homogeneity by inculcating, in the child, from the beginning, essential similarities that collective life demands (Durkheim, 1956).
Thus, the object of schooling is to legitimise rather than challenge the status quo of the existing social arrangement in a given society.

(ii) Schooling must be view as having a conservative and integrative function - that of transmitting the cultural heritage of older generations to younger generation and maintaining the social order. The main function of education in this regard would be to work towards solidarity and integration rather than differentiation or managed pluralism. Thus, schooling system becomes important part of the process of achieving unity, cohesion and consensus in society.

(iii) Meighan (1986) speaks of the way the functionalist view would influence interpretations of the three key areas of schooling, namely, the curriculum, the roles of teachers and pupils and interpersonal relations. In all three areas, the functionalist would find a common pattern of maintaining social order. The task of designing the curriculum involves selecting only those contents that can demonstrably be shown to be part of the common collective culture.

(iv) Dominance of social needs over those of the individual prevails in the expected role of the teachers who must ensure the inculcation of group values, allegiance and sense of responsibility in the pupils on their part, are seen as a passive recipient of the rules of the society from their teachers. In this definition of roles. three distinct elements characterizing interpersonal relations in the school are distinguished: (1) by virtue of their knowledge, experience and authority teachers enjoy superior position over their pupils; (2) teacher-pupil relations are structured in such a way as to mediate conflict or disharmony in the social order, and (3) within this arrangement neither the teachers authority nor the pupils passivity is to be defined by personal need or interest, rather, both are to be govern by what is called the collective culture on which the entire functionalist perspective rests.

(v) The application of the functionalist model to schooling or indeed any social institution, even at the level of simple analysis requires a measure of understanding of the fit between the part of the social system and their functional and contribution to the smooth running of the whole. Functionalist analysis aims to uncover the "deep structures" operating in the consciousness of the whole by focusing on what can be regarded as the cardinal functions of its various parts on which the entire social structure rests.

YEAR 2014 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION (PDE 709)

Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) credit course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all
c. All questions carry equal marks

TIME: 2HOURS

1. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Action Perspective; (5 marks)
(ii) Phenomenology; (5 marks)
(iii) Ethnomethodology; and (7 marks)
(iv) Basic principles of symbolic internationalism. (8 marks)

2. Discuss any five (5) social functions of the school to the society. (25 marks)

3(a) Enumerate any four (4) characteristics of culture in Ezewu (1983) (16marks)
(b) In one paragraph, explain why education is dependent on the culture of the society. (9marks)

4(a) Distinguish between Sociology of Education and Educational sociology; (5marks)
(b) Explain five (5) importance of the study of sociology of education to teachers. (20marks)

5(a) Explain the concept, 'economic determinism'. (9marks)
(b) How does the concept relate to Education in Nigeria? (16marks)

6 (a) Define 'Social Stratification' and explain its basic elements. (15marks)
(b) Distinguish between vertical mobility and horizontal mobility. (10marks)

[Note: Answers for the 2014 paper were not included in the source document.]

1. The following are the principles of learning:
i. Experience;
ii. Relevance;
iii. Feedback;
iv. Motivation;
v. Reinforcement.

i. Experience
In as much as learning should be organized and be within the realm of the learner's capability. It must also be experience centred. Teachers and instructors must make use of teaching aids and materials that are within the experience of the learner so as to enhance the rate of assimilation and retention. Whenever a lesson is experience centred, the learner would tend to see its relevance. Meaningfulness can be further enhanced when vocabulary is drawn at first from the experience of the learner.

ii. Relevance
It is easier to learn and to remember something if it is related to what is familiar and if it has meaning or importance to the life of the learner. Thus, teachers would facilitate classroom learning when the content of the lesson is related to what is significant or motivating to the learner.

iii. Feedback
Theories of learning have for long emphasized the importance of knowledge of result or feedback as a factor of aiding learning. Thorndike had emphasized this point when he modified his three famous laws. Evaluation of progress toward goals is very important. Practice works only if the learner sees the result of his practice.

Feedback can be provided in cognitive learning by employing short, informal quizzes and then asking the learner to correct his own work. Knowledge of result in psychomotor learning is easier to provide.

iv. Motivation
This refers to what energizes a person to behave in a particular way. It is a complex concept, which deals with people's wants, needs, demands, and desires. Motivation is central in energizing an individual to seek to learn or remain attentive and active in the learning process. A motivated learner strives to put greater effort in the classroom so as to achieve his or her goals.

When a learner is motivated internally, it is said that the learner is intrinsically motivated. When it is external, it is said to be an extrinsic motivation. The usefulness of motivation can be summarized as follows:

1. Its use helps learners to pay attention in class;
2. It can lead to self-discovery and independent inquiry;
3. It stimulates learners to higher achievement;
4. It helps establish cordial relationship between teacher; and students especially when students find learning less boring and less confusing;
5. More learning outcomes are assured;
6. When students achieve through motivation, attendance at school becomes regular.

v. Reinforcement
Reinforcement implies the use of reward and punishment in teaching. Reward is found to be normally more effective in aiding learning. All the instrumental conditioning theories and even social learning theory have emphasized the significance of reinforcement. To encourage learning, psychologists, especially B.F. Skinner recommend that reward or positive reinforcement should be used minimally or just enough to ensure that the appropriate behavior will be repeated.

2(a) Learning has been defined by various psychologists amongst them are:

Hengenhann (1982) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavioural potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice.

According to Bugelski (1956), learning is the process of the formation relatively permanent neural circuits through the stimulation neous activity of the elements of the circuits-to-be, such activity is of the nature of change in cell structures through growth in such a manner as to facilitate the arousal of the entire circuit when a component element is aroused or activated.

Hilgard and Bower, (1975), defined learning as the change in a subject's behavior to a given situation brought about by his repeated experiences in that situation provided that the behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation or temporary states of the subject (e.g fatigue, drugs, alcohol, etc).

Basic Characteristics of Learning

i. Learning Has To Change Behaviour
For learning to be said to have taken place, there must be the element of change in a subject's behavior overtly or covertly to a given situation brought about by his repeated experiences in that situation.

ii. The Change should be Relatively Permanent.
This change must not be momentary, it must be relatively permanent. It should be retained over some period of time. Change in behaviour as result of fatigue or other transitory conditions such as use of drugs or alcohol do not constitute learning.

iii. The Change should be as a Result of Experience
Another characteristic of learning is that the change in behavior must be based on exposure to the environment. Environment here refers to learning situations of any situation that allows one to gain some experience. Learning, therefore, involved a change in the behavior of the individual as a consequence of his or her experience. This can manifest in the way the individual thinks (cognitive), acts (Psychomotor) of feels (affective).

iv. Learning is an Internal Process
The change may be an increased capability in performance altered disposition in attitude, interest or value. It must be distinguishable from the kind of change that is attributed to growth, such as change in height or the development if muscles through exercise. Thus, learning is an internal process.

v. Learning Occurs under conditions of directed attention and deliberate effort.
Learning (the change) should be retained over some period of time due to experience. Hence, learning is accompanied with directed attention and deliberate effort. If a behavioural change can be shown to be the result of some factor other than experience then we do not consider it to be learning.

vi. Learning is Distinct from Biological Maturation and Imprinting
Maturation refers to the physiological development of a growing person. It is specifically used for qualitative changes in the organism which are not induced by learning. Imprinting which is a psychological concept is an instinctive reaction an organism displays that capitalizes on certain tendencies which appears whenever the time is ripe. Thus, learning, that exhibits itself as a change in behavior is distinct from biological maturation and imprinting.

2(b) Maturation refers to the psychological development if a growing person. Maturation is specifically used for qualitative changes in the organism which are not induced by learning. The relationship between maturity and learning is very close because learning takes place within a certain level of maturation.

Maturation, has been defined by Gleitman, H. (1996) as programmed growth process which is relatively unaffected by environmental condition. E.g. walking in humans. For training to yield effective results a defined level of maturation is required. For example, learning and training should start when a child reaches an appropriate level of maturation which implies concept of readiness for an activity. Teachers and parents must be before the child's level of maturation otherwise it would be a waste of time and effort to expect a child to perform a task or learn materials he/she is not matured enough to undertake.

4. The factors are listed below:
i. Rehearsal;
ii. Organisation;
iii. Mnemonic devices;
iv. Attention;
v. Relearning.

i. Rehearsal
When the information received in the sensory region is selected for further processing. This involves repeating or reciting the skill or information in order to store it in long term memory. When material being learnt is not well rehearsed it cannot move from the short-term memory to the long-term memory. If material already well learnt is rehearsed for a very long time, forgetting will not set in.

ii. Organisation
If the information learned fits into an organized pattern, it may easily be remembered. When children are made to learn disjointed facts or unrelated materials, they easily get confused and be unable to organize it into the scheme they already have in their long-term memory. But when a learning material is well organized (or can be organized) and it is meaningful, understanding and therefore recall is enhanced.

iii. Mnemonic Devices
These are special phases of symbols used to group information. For TV may stand for television, or BBC for British Broadcasting Corporation etc. Mnemonic devices help in the learning of the unfamiliar information.

iv. Attention
This is the process of selecting vital information for further processing. Unless selective and proper attention is given to what is to be learned, learning is unlikely to be effective. Information will not be processed into the short-term or long-term memory if it is not attended to. It will disappear since it has not been processed at all.

v. Re-Learning
This is where a person is required to learn again information which was experience before. It is mainly for research purposes to determine whether relearning would take more or less time than learning for the first time.

5. E. L. Thorndike (1874 – 1949) advanced his three famous laws pertaining to learning.

i. Law of Effect
It states that a satisfying state of affairs heads to repetition of a given behavior, whereas an annoying state of affairs tends to weaken a response. The point here is that connections are made or unmade by an organism based on the outcomes. In other words, reward or reinforcement support learning.

ii. Law of Exercise
Repetition with meaning results in substantial learning and produces effective learning even though repetition by itself does not produce effective learning. Under this law, therefore, a strong bond or connection is established between a stimulus and a response as a result of practice. The more a skill or information is practiced, the more it will be mastered, applied and retained, for example, children learning the alphabet or even the multiplication table often employ this principle to gain mastery of the subject.

Thorndike had laid street emphasis upon reward and punishment. He argued that punishment is much less effective although it does not have less affective weakening effect on learning. To Thorndike, learning is the stamping in of the successful S-R bonds while forgetting is the stamping out of the unsuccessful S-R bonds.

Implications of Edward Thorndike's Theory to Teacher
i. Reward is important in learning, it strengthens the occurrence of behavior it follows;

ii. Practice and repetition is vital in the learning process. However, practice efforts should be accompanied by feedback.

iii. The law of readiness stresses the importance of preparation for learning. The teacher must wait until the learner is ready to learn and should give those experiences which help to enhance readiness. Preparatory experience that will hasten the development of readiness can be provided in elementary classes.

YEAR: 2011 PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION
(PDE 706)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. a. Explain the concept of learning;
b. State and explain any five (5) of it characteristics

3. Distinguished between Physical and Cognitive Development of An Adolescent and explain the factors that affect each development?

4. Explain the following learning theories'
i. Stimulus-Response Theory
ii. Social Learning Theory

5. a. What is learning environment?
b. Explain the role of the teacher in facilitating a conducive learning environment as a necessary condition for effective learning.

6. Identify and discuss any Three (3) causes of forgetting and explain how they affect learning.

1a. There is no universally acceptable definition of learning, and indeed all psychological concepts. Talking about learning, it is probably the topic which is closest to the heart of psychology.

Several and sometimes varying definitions have been given by different psychologists on the meaning of learning. These definitions however seem to coverage on certain trends which highlight the characteristics of learning. Myers, D. G. (1993) defined learning a relatively permanent change in an organization behavior due to experience. Similarly, Mukherjee (2002) gave the meaning of learning as an influence from some performance of the organism resulting in an enduring change of behavior.

Hengenhann (1982) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavioural potentially that occurs as a result of reinforce practice.

From the above definitions, there are key elements that explain the nature and characteristics of learning. These are:

i. Learning exhibits itself as a change in behavior

ii. Interference is made about learning by comparing the subject's initial behavior before he was placed in the "learning situation" and what behavior exhibited after the treatment.

iii. The change must be an increased capability in performance, altered disposition in attitude, interest or value.

iv. This change must not be momentary, it must be relatively permanent. It should be retained over some period of time,

v. The change must be distinguished from the kind of change that is attributed to growth, such as change in height or the development of muscles through exercise.

According to psychologists, for learning to be said to have taken place, there must be the element of change in behavior overtly or covertly. Secondly, the change in behavior as a result of fatigue or other transitory conditions such as use of drugs or alcohol do not constitute learning. The third criterion is that the change in behavior must be based on exposure to the environment (learning situations or any situation that allows one to gain some experience).

1(b) (Repeated Question 2010, No. 2(a)).

3. Physical development refers to series of orderly changes that occur in body size i.e. weight and height, body proportions, i.e. shapes as a result of changes in body size. During adolescent, much of the vital energy goes to increasing the body in size. What marks this period most are the noticeable spurt in growth. In height and weight and the development of the secondary sex characteristics. At puberty, there is a sharp increase in the production of androgens in boys and estrogens in girls. The gonads become capable of producing hormones sufficient to cause accelerated growth of the genital organs and the appurtenance of secondary sex characteristics.

As described by Shuttleworth, physical development associated with sexual maturation in girls appears approximately in the following order:
i. Enlargement of the breast;
ii. Appearance of straight pigmented pubic hair;
iii. Maximum rapid bodily growth;
iv. Appearance of kinky pubic hair;
v. Menarche (the first start of menstruation);
vi. Growth of auxiliary (under arm) hair.

W.W. Gulick and his associates should the order of appearance of some external development in boys during pubertal age as follows:
i. The growth of the testes is accelerated and usually followed by that of the penis;
ii. A conspicuous growth of long, down hair on the pubic area appears;
iii. The down on the upper lip, especially at the corners, became slightly longer, coarser and darker;
iv. Long down appears on the sides of the face in front of the ears;
v. The voice deepens perceptibly;
vi. The penis and testes attain almost their full adult dimensions with the production of spermatozoa during wet dreams.

On the other hand, cognition development refer to the development of intellect, abilities in human beings to enable them act on the environment with greater flexibility and in more ways (Gruber and Voneche, 1977).

With the beginning of adolescence, adult-like thinking emerges. Jean Piaget called this stage formal operational stage of formal thought. As the individual reaches the age of adolescence when his brain is about to mature, he is capable of solving much more difficult problems. He uses logical and syllogistic formulas to solve his problem. In some of the problems he may employ images and hypotheses.

Four factors are necessary for the development of cognitive functions. These are:
i. The physical environment;
ii. maturation;
iii. social influences; and
iv. the learner's self-regulation processes, referred to as equilibration (Piaget, 1977).

Contact with the physical environment is indispensable since the interaction between the individual and the world is the source of new knowledge. However, contact with the physical world is insufficient for developing knowledge unless the individual's intelligence can make use of the experience. Maturation of the nervous system is therefore important because it permits the adolescent to realize maximum benefit from physical experience. In other words, maturation opens up possibilities for development, whereas the lack of it establishes broad limits on cognitive achievement.

The third factor, the social environment, includes the role of language and education. The importance of the social environment is that such experiences, like physical experience, can accelerate or retard the development of cognitive structures (Inheldere, Sinclair, and Bovet, 1974).

The fourth factor, equilibrium is the Learner's self-regulatory and self-correcting processes that function throughout development. Equilibrium regulates the individual's specific interactions with the environment as well as physical experience, social experience and physical development. Equilibrium permits cognitive development to proceed in a coherent and organized fashion.

4(i) Stimulus Response (S – R) Theories can be subdivided into two major categories. The first set of S – R theories is theories without reinforcement such as classical conditioning by Pavlov as well as learning theories by J.B. Watson and E.R. Gutheries. The second set of S – R theories is connectionism theory by Thorndike and Operant conditioning by Skinner.

4(a) Classical Conditioning
This theory was developed by the Russian Physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936). Conditioning simply means hearing or modification of behavior as a result of the organism's interaction with the physical or social environment.

Classical conditioning emerges out of Pavlov's experiment with a dog. The experiment involves playing some food before a hungry dog, and the dog salivates naturally as a result. Food here is referred to as unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the salivation being the natural responses is called unconditioned response (UCR). When, however, the presentation of food to the dog was preceded with the ringing of a bell and the sequence was repeated several times, it was found out that the dog salivated at the sound of the bell even when food did not accompany the bell sound. Here the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation by analog referred to as conditioned response (CR).

Another example of classical conditioning to human learning situations is, if a teacher enters into classroom as soon as the bell for his lesson is rung, the pupils may soon be conditioned to remain ready for lesson to begin whenever the bell rings. This sort of conditioning works better if the pupils do enjoy their lessons with that teacher.

4(b) Operant (Instructional Conditioning)
This S – R theory was propounded by the American psychologist, B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1990). In Operant Conditioning Skinner insisted that the organism is much less at the mercy of the external situation. Its reactions are hence entitled from within, Skinner called these instrumental responses Operants. Skinner believed in the law of effect proposed by Thorndike and the tendency to emit these operants is strengthened/weakened by its consequences.

Skinner developed his box (Skinner box) to study the behavior of his experimental rats and Pigeons within a short time and in an objective manner.

The Skinner box has a lever which can be pressed by the rat, and the pressing of the lever would act a mechanism which would deliver some food pellets through a food tube. When a rat is introduced into the box, a chance pressing of the lever would deliver some quality of food for the rat to eat. In a short time, it was observed that the animal goes on pressing the lever to get food reward.

4(c) Connectionism
This is another S – R theory developed by E. L. Thorndike (1874 – 1949). He studied how animals went about solving problems some of the animals he used were cats, dogs and chickens which were put in cages within sight of food after being deprived of food for a while. The theory was based on trial and error process in which an animal placed. In a problem posing situation would randomly seek to solve such a problem.

Using his Puzzle box, Thorndike allowed a hungry cat placed inside to get food only after pulling the right lever. After several attempts, the animal engaged more scientific trial and error behavior. With repetition, it solved more and more, it solved more and more problems. Subsequently, when association had become well established, the animal responded more appropriately. Thorndike advanced that learning is connecting and the connections have a basis in the nervous system.

Generally, S – R learning believes that once the individual has shown desirable behaviour, such behaviour has to be encouraged through the use of reinforcement. In other words, something is done to encourage repeating the behaviour when occasion calls for it.

4(ii) Social Learning Theory
This theory is commonly referred to as observational or imitation theory which is primarily based on what a child learns in his environment as he interacts and observes others. This assists his socialization process which is concurrent with his society's expectation. The chief proponent of social learning theory was Albert Bandura, a social psychologist of Canadian descent working on America. Bandura and other social psychologist believed that learning by reinforcement and S – R generally does not explain the socialization process among human beings. They argued that unlike animals, human have a culture which they transmit from one generation to the next.

Thus, people learn a multitude of solutions to problems that were discovered by others before them. For example, people learn their mother tongue of the alphabet not by inventing anything. All they need is to listen, observe and imitate.

Social learning is regarded as a powerful mechanism of socialization. The child observes another who serves as model and then precedes to imitate what the model does. Many cultures uses such imitative patterns as a way of inducting the child into adult ways.

In social learning limitation may occur even though the observer does not copy the model's actions immediately the occur (learning without performance) and even though he neither receives a reward himself nor sees the model receive one (Learning without reinforcement).

Social learning is facilitated by a number of factors. These according to Mwanwenda (1989) include: attention, memory, motor skills, reinforcement and identification.

5(a) Learning environment refers to the learner's physical psychological environment and social surrounding. Physical surroundings for the school child include a host of structure such as the school buildings, furniture, equipment and instrument materials. The social surrounding on the other refers to the child's teachers, peers and other people involved in the affairs of the school. The psychological environment refers of the kind of atmosphere which the teaching creates for interaction between him and his pupils.

5(b) The role of the teacher in facilitating a conducive learning environment include any of the following:

i. The teachers need to show kindness and understanding to his pupils. A teacher should always be friendly and helpful to his students and endeavour to become worthy substitute of the child's parents in order to motivate and reassure him or her. Teachers should take interest in his students' genuine personal problems and shows a lot of understanding in assisting to solve them. He treats any personal problems of his students with utmost confidentiality with a view to enlisting their confidence.

ii. Teachers should use play method and employ a variety of learning aids especially for young primary school children in the classroom. Methods of teaching should be varied to accommodate all pupils and as well teachers should use interesting and stimulating learning materials to motivate students.

iii. School children should be encouraged by the teachers to feel truly at home whenever they are at school. Any environment that is perceived by the learner to be hostile many instill fear and apprehension which consequently could push the learners to take to truancy or even withdrawal. It is this the primarily responsibility of the school teacher and indeed school authorities to ensure that both the physical and social environment in the school are ideal and supportive of learning.

iv. Classroom arrangement and organization by the teacher go a long way in maintaining a conducive learning environment. A teacher who organizes his class in such a way that he can get to any part or any material without disturbing the peace of the class, will sustain the control and conducive atmosphere for learning than a teacher who is unorganized. Equally the teacher who lays out the materials he needed for his lesson in appropriate places and gets them without washing time during the lesson, stands a better chance of sustaining a conducive learning environment.

v. Another role of the teacher in sustaining a conducive learning environment is that must be very competent to handle his teaching subject. A teacher should inspire the confidence of his students, he must know his subject inside out, not just what he is to cover as shown in the syllabus. In this manner, the pupils are interested and involved in the lesson as they have no time for in disciplinary activities.

6. Three (3) causes of forgetting include:
i. Poor Rehearsal
ii. Poor organization
iii. Serial position effect

i. Poor Rehearsal
When material being learnt is not well rehearsed it cannot move from the short-memory to the long term memory. Similarly, material in the long-term memory will be difficult to retrieve. If it is not used for a long-term memory. Indeed, there is a limit to the amount of time that information lasts even in long-term memory. The other words, if material already well learnt to left unrevised for a very long term time, forgetting sets in.

ii. Serial Position Effect
It has been found that when we attempt to recall a list of words, we begin by recalling words at the end of the list that is those more recently presented and then proceed to the beginning of the list. The words in the middle of the list are likely to be forgotten. This is because the early items were better encoded or rehearsed and are therefore more likely to be stored in the long-term memory. Furthermore, the items from the end of the list are well recalled because they occurred so recently that they may still reside in the short-term memory. This can be easily demonstrated in the learning of the alphabets or numerals by children.

iii. Poor Organisation
When children are made to learn disjointed facts or unrelated materials, they easily get confused and be unable to organize it into the scheme they already have in their long-term memory. At the time of recall, they are likely to find it difficult to get cues. But when a learning material is well organized (or can be organized) and it is meaningful, understanding and therefore recall is enhance. The search for them at the time of recall becomes easy.

YEAR: 2012 PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION
(PDE 706)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) Define educational Psychology.
(b) Examine and discuss the role of educational Psychology in the school.

2. (a) Explain three scope of educational Psychology;
(b) Summarize five importance of educational Psychology to the teacher

3. (a) Discuss Piaget's theory of cognitive development
(b) Outline and discuss five (5) factors that affects learning

4. (a) Define Adolescence
(b) List five developmental tasks of adolescents as suggested by Harvighurst (1972).

5. Discuss the significance of studying learning theories to teaching and learning.

6. (a) Give any five reasons why we forget;
(b) List and discuss five (5) ways of motivating learners in the classroom.
(i) Lack of attention;
(ii) Poor Rehearsal;
(iii) Poor organization;
(iv) Serial position effect, and
(v) Previous unpleasant experience

1(a) Educational Psychology is one of the branches of applied Psychology which focused on educational process.
According to Oladele, J.O (1987). Educational Psychology is the application of Psychological principles, techniques and other resources of psychology to the solution of educational problem confronting the teacher as he attempts to direct the process of learning and growth of the child towards the objectives set by the teacher, the school and the society.

Also, Educational Psychology is that special branch of Psychology concerned with the nature, conditions, outcome and evaluations of learning outcomes (Ausubel, D.)

1(b) The role of Educational Psychology in the School

(i) The knowledge of educational psychology will help the teacher to understand the individual differences among students and how to cater for them. Children are different from one another; some come to school rather young, others are more matured, some develop fast, others are not. Education psychology helps the teacher to explain the ways in which individuals differ and suggests ways of coping with these differences. Genetic and environmental factors which give rise to these differences are also acquainted with the teacher.

(ii) The knowledge of educational Psychology also helps to develop research skills in the teacher and improves his administration skills. Our people are not research conscious and yet the only way to understand our children better and improve learning through research. The educational psychology is based on the need to conducive private child study within the classroom. It also encourages teacher to keep records of behaviour and to improve on his administrative capabilities (Skills).

(iii) The knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher to understand and methods of diagnosing learning difficulties. There are physically handicapped and mentally retarded children in our school. Also, there are some deaf or hard of hearing, the blind or partial blind, those who have suffered loss of limbs or any form or any form of structural deformaties. Educational Psychology equips teachers to provide adequate learning experiences for these children first by contributing towards their identification and specifying how they can be rehabilitated. Thus, students with special needs an adjustment problem will be helped appropriately.

(iv) It helps the teacher to understand the principles behind various teaching methods and when to use each. It is known that when children do not learn, the teaching environment and methods are at fault. Educational Psychology has equipped teachers with tested principles and techniques, which promote learning. For instance, strategies to get the learner to be very active as well as the use of rewards and incentives have been proposed. These techniques and principles are specified for different learning and teaching of different types of materials (skills, concepts, problem solving, etc).

(v) The knowledge helps the teacher to understand the measurement of learning outcomes using various assessment methods. Educational Psychology assists the teacher not only to assess the abilities of students but also learning progress. Although some of the psychological traits can only be measured by professional Psychologists, there are certainly many facets of the learner's behaviours which the teacher has to assess and measure. When children make mistakes the teacher may mark the answer wrong, but a more helpful way is to ask why the child made the mistake. Errors arise from application of correct procedures in wrong situations due to limited information.

2(a) The scope of educational psychology is explained below:

(i) Human Growth and Development
In order to get people to learn, the teachers have to fathom their capabilities, what they already know, how they think, etc. So, the various facets of human development – physical, intellectual, linguistic, moral, social, etc., are of great interest. Besides, we do know that people are differently endowed and how their environments have made them different. Of special interest are the environmental factors that have been very beneficial in development.

(ii) Learning and Instruction
Educational Psychology is concerned with the general nature of the learning process, how and when different types of materials are learnt. Do people learn skills? Of particular concern is how to ensure that knowledge acquired in school to transferred to life outside school not just immediately it is learnt but several years after the students have left school.

(iii) Personality and Adjustment
Educational psychology is interested in how people develop and maintain healthy personalities and attitudes especially students and teachers. Social relationships and how students adjust to the school situation, make friends and interact with everyone in the educational setting as well as character formation.

2(b) The Importance of Educational Psychology to the teacher includes:

(a) It helps the Teacher to understand the learner
Educational Psychology helps the teacher to understand the learner in the following ways:
(i) Understanding how children develop;
(ii) Understanding individual differences among the learners;
(iii) Understanding and educating exceptional children;
(iv) Understanding behavioural problem of children

(i) Educational Psychology furnishes the teacher with knowledge of the development of the child as he progresses from infancy through childhood to adolescence. Children are different from one another. Some come to school rather young, others are more matured some develop fast, others are not educational psychology helps to explain the ways in which individuals differ, and suggests ways of coping with these differences.

There are physically and mentally challenged children in our school. There are others who are very slow in learning although they may look normal physically but their intelligence is low. Educational psychology equips teachers to prove adequate learning experiences for these children first by contributing towards their identification and specifying how they can be rehabilitated.

Furthermore, educational psychology helps the teacher to acquire knowledge of children's behavioural problems. Some problems are normal and will disappear with age ad greater maturity. Some are genetic while others have environmental origins.

(ii) It helps the teacher to improve learning and teaching
Educational Psychology has proposed tested principles and techniques which promote learning. For instance, strategies to get the learner to be very active as well as the use of rewards and incentives have been proposed. These techniques and principles are specified for different learning and teaching of different types of materials employed by the teacher.

Educational Psychology provides the teacher help in deciding whether certain categories of learners would benefit most from individualized instruction, small group or whole class instruction. Indeed, the distance learning techniques – another contribution of educational psychology. Educational psychology assists the teacher not only to assess the abilities of students but also learning progress. For instance, when children make mistakes, the teacher may mark the answer wrong but a more helpful way is to ask why the child made the mistake.

(iii) It facilitates the teacher's understanding of himself
Teachers are models for learners and therefore some of the things they do mirror back out qualities. Also in learning about and trying to impact certain skills, e.g social and other adjustment skills, they cannot help assessing and improving their own skills too.
Thus, Educational Psychology helps the teachers to understand and accept (self acceptance) their strengths and weakness that influence development and learning educational psychology makes the teacher understand what he can influence and what he cannot change. It encourages the teacher to promote learning because not all students can learn the same level even with the best of teaching techniques. Similarly, a teacher uses the instructional techniques that fit in with his personality.

(iv) It helps in advancement of the causes of education
Educational psychology analyses for the teachers the influence of our environment on development, on learning and other aspect of behaviour. Sometimes, the environment has retarding effects on development and schooling. With good stimulating learning environments the teacher can overcome such retarding effects. Hence, educational psychology enables teachers not only to environment but to try to convince others of the need for educational intervention for the good of our children.

Furthermore, educational psychology course is based on the results of research. It therefore impresses on the need to conduct private child study within the classroom. It also encourages teachers to keep records of behaviour.

(v) It helps the teacher to measure accurately the academic ability of the learner
Educational psychology helps the teacher to give a true picture of the learner. It helps to point clearly areas that are learnt and areas not learnt. Measurement of learning outcomes is achieved using various assessment methods. The result of this will help to improve the learning strategies.

3(a) Jean Piaget (1896-1980) has contributed immensely to the understanding of cognitive development. According to Piaget, the uniqueness of mental abilities of a certain child from his age cognitive structures (internal structures that govern the individual's interactions with the environment; internalized actions). There are four stages of cognitive development according to Jean Piaget, these are:

(i) Sensori motor stage 0-2 years
(ii) Preoperational stage 2-7 years
(iii) Concrete operational stage 7-11 years
(iv) Formal operational stage 11-15 years

(i) Sensori Motor Stage (0-2 Years)
This is the period when a child employs the capacities he is born with i.e it is primarily reflexes. It is also a period a child achieves conquest of object permanence. Object move, fall, disappear also reappear. The child finds all these exciting. The child explores and learns at the same time. The child would want to touch some of the objects he has not been able before now when the child is not able to interact with the physical world, there is a tendency that has physical and emotional development will be affected.

(ii) Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 Years)
This is a very important period for mental development. The child achieves conquest of symbols. It is during this period that language and vocabulary are developed. The child is able to report what happened to him to his parents. He learns that every object has a name and that name stands for many properties of objects.

Children learn of good and bad behaviour at this stage, they only appreciate rules and their consequences in behaviour. They do not yet have mental capacity to consider the motives for judging good or bad behaviours. They are fascinated with symbolization especially among 3 or 4 years old. They give name to things and it makes meaning to them. They have the problem of classification.

(iii) Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
This is when there is conquest of reasoning by children. There is an interaction of cognitive skills and experience used in the performance of logical process of thought. He is able to internalize actions that will enable him to think about what he would have done by manipulating objects. He is able to perform reasoning operations and is able to follow instructions step by step. The mental ability at this period includes class inclusion, conservation and serial ordering for example, all dogs are animals and not all animals dogs. He can deduce that seeds planted the some day may not grow equally because of some reasons like nature of soil. In summary, his mental ability shows an improvement over the pre-operational stage.

(iv) Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years)
During this period, the nature of abstract thoughts and logical reasoning is achieved. This stage is very important to parents and teachers because the child have the ability to recognize hypotheses and assimilate, assumptions, concepts, theories, relationships and so on. He can also verify the result of his reasoning and at the same time is able to view his reasoning process. He can also express ideas in symbols which may not be linked or tied to physical works experiences. The keys patterns of reasoning at this stage are:
(1) Combinational Reasoning;
(2) Proportional Reasoning;
(3) Probabilistic Reasoning;
(4) Co-relational Reasoning.

Combinational Reasoning:
In this, there is proper consideration of all possible relation of experimental or theoretical condition in a very systematic and orderly manner.

Proportional Reasoning
A child recognizes and at the same time interprets relationships that exist in any given situation that is described in observable or abstract terms.

Probabilistic Reasoning
The child recognizes the fact that natural phenomena are probabilistic.

Co-relational Reasoning
A child is able to decide whether events are related and can go together. They also understand that there might be some differences and the relationships may not always turn out to be so.

As seen above, Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development redefines intelligence, knowledge, and the relationship of the learner to the environment. The processes by which each of these more complex structures explained above is constructed are assimilation and accommodation, regulated by equilibration.

3(b) (Repeated Question (2010, No. 3)).

4(a) Adolescence is the period between puberty and adulthood. It may also be referred to as the transitional period between childhood and adulthood. Adolescence is generally heralded by a final stage of all round physical growth. The changes are usually accompanied by new and often times confusing emotional responses, a broadening of social awareness and functioning.

4(b) Five developmental tasks of adolescents as suggested by Harvighurst, R.J. (1972) include:
(i) Achieving new and more mature relation with age mates of both sexes.
(ii) Achieving masculine and feminine social roles;
(iii) Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively;
(iv) Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults;
(v) Preparing for marriage and family life.

(i) Achieving new and more mature relation with age mates of both sexes
Adolescents must be allowed to mix freely in the classroom to be able to be able to develop understanding between both sexes. Young adolescents, male and female, in secondary and higher secondary institutions lean to one another in their attempt to satisfy this need. If unchecked, this tendency will escalate to unimaginable proportions leading to sexual abuse and promiscuities, which as it is presently, passes great threats to the life or the entire society.

Students need to be sensitized to voluntarily develop an intrinsic desire to balance in a manner expected of a full grown adult. They should be assisted through counseling to face the most challenging threats in their lives rather than the desire to actualize this instinctual desire.

(ii) Achieving Masculine and Feminine Social Roles
They must know how to dress and behave like male and female and adults and be able to perform masculine and feminine roles respectively. The school should thus encourage participation in related educational fields that emphasize these roles differentiations, e.g Agriculture, Home Management, Health Science, Sports, etc.

(iii) Accepting One's Physique and Using the body effectively
Adolescents must come to accept their physical features otherwise they cannot have a smooth transition to adulthood. Adolescents should be made to understand that their physical stature does not matter but how one uses it effectively to excel. Teachers should help them develop positive self image among themselves. They should try as much as possible to bring out in them their inherent potentialities by providing a lot of learning experiences to them. They should develop their creative capacities and mental faculties and encourage them to optimize their usage. They should discuss with them their usage. They should discuss with them their worries and remove all the barriers that would impede on their success in life.

(iv) Achieving Emotional Independence from parents and other adults
They need to achieve emotional independence from parents and other adults in order to have a sense of self worth and maturity. Teachers should give self-directed assignments and tasks to the adolescents. Give them the opportunity to take part in running the school or community affairs. The adolescents should be challenged to lead certain affairs of the school, society and the family. Formations of clubs and associations with the young adolescents as leaders would significantly help. The need to be supervised however by the adult members of the society.

(v) Preparing for Marriage and Family Life
The most important Institution for preparing the young adolescent for family life is the family with absolute peace and tranquility. They must set the standards they would expect the young adolescents to copy if eventually they establish theirs. They must see to it that every member within the family enjoys comfortable living, where ideas are shared for the collective welfare of all members. There must be love and compassion within the family members. Having a stable home is essential in preparing adolescents, who are transiting to adulthood, for setting up a family. Teachers should build on this edifice set by the family members by providing training and arranging family life counseling for both sexes. Guidance on Home Management and child care to girls, if not to both, can be very rewarding.

5. Significance of studying learning theories to teaching and learning are discussed below:

1. Through the study of learning theories, the teacher gets to understand the process of remembering and forgetting and how to minimize the incidence of forgetting learned things. In the same vein, the teacher can assist students not only to remember what has been learnt, but also to apply this to situations outside the classroom.

2. The stimulus response theory emphasizes that the teacher should take the needs of the learner into account. This is particularly so when the teacher thinks of the effects of classroom activities on children. In this connection, he should arrange classroom learning in such a way that learning is pleasurable. Learning proceeds best when the learner sees it as something that is desirable and which will be useful to him in one way or another.

3. Reinforcement is a major condition for most human learning to take place as cognitive theory emphasized. Children need to be reinforced for engaging in learning activities. Teachers can use both non-material reinforcement (words) and material reinforcement to encourage the efforts which children make to acquire knowledge.

4. The theory (S-R) also emphasizes the importance of generalization and discrimination. These skills are very necessary for learning about how to classify objects, form concepts and train children in problem solving and creating. Teachers need to begin at an early stage to offer children experiences which will enable them learn the skills of generalization and discrimination.

5. S-R theory of learning also teaches the teachers that reinforcement can be used to change the behaviour of children in and outside school. This is important in relation to managing the behaviour of children in class. Unusual behaviour such as lying, stealing, fighting, truancy, cheating, etc. can be changed through teaching and reinforcement.

6. Social theory (observational/imitation theory) is primarily based on what a child learns in his environment as he interacts and observes others. This assists the child's socialization process which is congruent with his society's expectation, including the school. This theory encourages the teachers to be true models worthy of emulation because the child observes them who serve as model and then proceeds to imitate what the model does. Schools and many cultures use such imitative patterns as a way of inducting the child into adult ways.

7. B.F Skinner's technology of teaching, Albert Bandura's social learning theory, and Bernard Weiner's attribution theory each speak to different issues related to classroom management. Analysis of classroom interactions may therefore be undertaken to determine:
(i) the discriminative stimuli and reinforcers for behaviours,
(ii) the behaviours modeled and reinforced (or punished) in the classroom setting, and
(iii) the attributional messages conveyed by the teacher's emotional reactions and subsequent behaviours for achievement-related outcomes. (For example, are particular attributional messages reinforcing undesirable student behaviours?)

Prosocial behaviours to be emphasized in the classroom may be identified, model selected, and potential reinforcers identified for both the models and other students. If self-officially and self-management are to be major classroom goals, them prerequisite behaviours, such as attending to the task and persistence, should be modeled and reinforced.

Using small group activities to promote co-operative learning should be carefully observed for the effects on students. What behaviours within each group are being modeled and reinforced? Are the reinforced behaviours consistent with the classroom goals, or are modifications needed? To what extent is experimentation with the environment contributing to the classroom goals of efficiency and self-management, etc.

(a) (i) Lack of attention;
(ii) Poor Rehearsal;
(iii) Poor organization;
(iv) Serial position effect, and
(v) Previous unpleasant experience

(b) Five (5) ways of motivating learners in the classroom include:
(i) Teacher's belongingness and love to his learners,
(ii) Provision for encouragement and incentives for learning
(iii) Providing safety for the learners;
(iv) Show esteem for the learners;
(v) Goals and objectives.

(i) Belongingness and Love
The teacher should show interest in all his students in the class to help them feel that they are members of the class. One way they can achieve this is to learn the names of the students. Children feel happy when the teacher calls them by their names instead of using the impersonal word like you. Listen to children's complaints attentively. If a child is absent from school the teacher should try to find out what is the cause.

(ii) Provide Encouragement and Incentives for Learning
The teacher should appeal to intrinsic interests of children but sometimes, it is necessary to use incentives in order to help children master knowledge and skills which are not fascinating but are necessary if children are to function in the society. The teacher should stimulate, persuade, inspire and even cajole children to learn some materials that are essential for everyday living or for subsequent learning.

(iii) Safety
The classroom should be safe from all elements of hazards. Sharp objects and materials should be safely kept away so that children can move freely. The temperature of the classroom should be watched. It should not be too cold or too stuffy. Windows should be closed on a cold day while they should be opened on a hot day. During cold season, children will be reminded to wear their pull-over. The teacher should protect children from the bully of other children. He should establish classroom routines in which children can take initiative and as well do not force students to participate in new activities except they are ready to do so.

(iv) Esteem
The teacher should arrange learning experience so that children can feel a degree of prestige. For example, in setting mathematics problems, allowance will be made so that dull children can successfully solve some of the problems. Let children be permitted at times to work towards their own goals. The teacher should motivate the slow learners by assisting them individually.

(v) Goals and Objectives
The goals and objectives should be challenging and attainable. The teacher should let children be guided in the selection of goals. This will help them towards intrinsic motivation (motivation that originates from within an individual). When children have chosen their own goals, it helps to arouse and sustain their interests.

YEAR: 2013 PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION
(PDE 706)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. Write short notes on the following
(i) Maturation (ii) Imprinting (iii) Boredom (iv) Instinct
(v) Reflex Action (25 Marks)

2. (a) Discuss the stages of human memory system (HMS) (10 marks)
(b) Examine any five (5) factors that aid long-term memory and retrieval. (15 marks).

3. Explain how the following areas of educational psychology are related to the training of teachers
(a) Human Growth and Development
(b) Learning and Instruction; and
(c) Psychological measurement (25 marks)

4. Carefully examine any five (5) contributions of Stimulus Response Theorists to the process of education (25 marks).

5. (a) What do you understand by the concept educational psychology? (5 marks)
(b) Examine in any five (5) ways the relevance of educational psychology to the teacher (20 marks)

6. Discuss in any five (5) ways a teacher can create and sustain conducive physical and psychological learning environments in the classroom. (25 marks)

1(i) Maturation
This refers to the physiological development of a growing person. Maturation is used specifically for qualitative changes in the organism which are not induced by learning.

Gleitman, H. (1996) defines maturation as programmed growth process which is relatively unaffected by environmental condition. E.g. walking in humans. For training to yield effective results, a defined level of maturation is required. For example, learning and training should start when a child reaches an appropriate level of maturation which implies concept of readiness for an activity. Teachers and parents must ignore the child's level of maturation otherwise it would be a waste of time and effort to expect a child to perform a task or learn materials he/she is not matured enough to undertake. Maturation is a function of two major factor, which are in turn dependent on time and experience functions, viz: phylogenetic functions and ontogenetic functions.

1(ii) Imprinting
Imprinting is an instinctive reaction an organism displays that capitalizes on certain tendencies which appears whenever the time is ripe. For example, after hatching, new chicks can be induced to follow any moving object nearby. The timing is right and behaviour of following is inborn which guides certain species of animals such as birds reptiles or fish to behave in certain predictable manner. Unlike other animals, human beings do not have this genetic code of imprinting. Human beings rather behave according to their experience in the course of their interaction with the environment.

1(iii) Boredom
Boredom has been defined by Cynthia D. Fisher in terms of its main central psychological processes. "as an unpleasant, transient affective state in which the individual feels a pervasive lack of interest and difficulty concentrating on current activity".

Boredom is not permanent, it is often a result of over labouring of self with some mental or physical activities. After taking enough rest, boredom is removed. Types of boredom include:
(i) Indifferent;
(ii) Calibrating;
(iii) Searching;
(iv) Reactant; and
(v) Apathetic.

1(iv) Instinct (Innate Behaviour)
This is an unlearned response that is inborn in living organisms. Jean Henri Fabre, an entomologist considered instinct to be any behaviour which did not require cognition it consciousness to perform.

Instinct or Innate behaviour is the inherent inclination of a living organism towards a particular complex behaviour. Any behaviour is instinctive, if it is performed without being based upon prior experience (that is, in the absence of learning) and is therefore an expression of innate biological factors. For instance, sucking of mother's breast by a new born baby is an instinctive behaviour. Other examples include, cock crowing, neonatal cry, animal fighting, animal courtship behaviour, building of nests by birds, etc.

The role of instincts in determining the behaviour of animals varies from species to species. The more complex the neural system of an animal, the greater is the role of the cerebral cortex and social learning, and instincts play on lesser role.

1(v) Reflex Action
This is the involuntary movement of any organ or body part in response to a particular stimulus. The function or action occurs immediately, without the involvement of the will or consciousness. Reflex actions are actions that the organism does not have control over. Some of these actions knee jerk, heart beat, sneezing, coughing, breathing, blinking of the eyes etc. Some are permanent while some are temporary. Reflex actions are not attributed to be hearing.

2(a) The stages of human memory system (HMS) include:

(i) The Sensory Memory (SM)
This is the first store in the system. It is also called the sensory register. As soon as we experience a sensation (smell, sight, touch, taste, etc), it enters the sensory memory which hold the information in few seconds (one to three seconds) for us to decide whether to attend to it or not. If the information is not attended to and recognize a meaningful or relevant, it gets lost. But if the information is attended to and recognized, it is then moved to the next level of memory for further processing. That is, to the short-term memory. For instance, it is possible for one to read a comprehension through without being able to recall what one has read, although one had seen the words.

The two processes that determine whether or not information is the sensory memory is processed further or not are attention and recognition. And both are controlled by the nature of the information itself.

(ii) The Short Term Memory (STM)
Once information has been attended to and recognized as meaningful, it is transferred from the sensory memory to the short-term memory. The short term memory lasts longer than the sensory memory and can hold information for approximately 20 seconds. It also has a limited amount of information it can store. It holds information for immediate use and for further processing into the long term memory. This is why it is also called working memory. Information not processed within 20 seconds disappears. This problem can be dealt with through rehearsal. It may be for immediate use as when one chant a phone number to oneself while dialing the telephone.

One keep chanting it so that he remembers it while the dialing lasts. As soon as he finished dialing the numbers he forgets it. We can apply rehearsed information usage if we don't want to forget it again by linking the materials to be learned to our previous knowledge already stored in the long-term memory. This can be done by using some devices. For example, to remember the days of the month, one can learn the rhyme "thirty days has September, April, June and November,..." or use the acronym Bodmas to stand for Bracket, of Division, multiplication, addition and subtraction. These are called Mnemonic devices.

(iii) The Long Term Memory (LTM)
This memory store has an unlimited capacity for storing information. Information in the long term memory does not decay and does not disappear (permanent store). It is the long term memory that enables us to recall memories from long ago. All the knowledge, skill, interests and attitudes of this world and of ourselves that we have are stored in the long term memory. The long term memory is organized in terms of personal episodes and schemata. Our day to day personal experiences of episodes such as what we did, where we did it, and at what time we did it are recorded as episodes in the long term memory.

This is called episodic memory. It is like our diary or autobiography. Such information are often difficult to retrieve unless cues or contexts are given. Someone normally does not pay close attention to when and where he/she experienced certain events. Objects, concepts, relations, qualities, events, facts, principles, are stored in the long term memory in categories or classes. Because these are made up of inter related concepts and rule that have been encountered repeatedly in a variety of contexts, they are less subject for forgetting than episodic memories.

The individual categorizes in-coming information according to an existing scheme or format in this memory. Such scheme or picture determine the degree to which learners attend to and understand new information, how much information is recalled and how accurately it is recalled. In general, human beings process information very systematically.

The schematic diagram of the information processing model of memory (Adapted from 1986, Dennis child) is shown below:

[Diagram: Sense of Sight, Sound, Smell, Touch --> Sensory Memory (Momentary Storage, Very limited capacity; information lost after 1 to 3 seconds if not processed) --Attention/Recognition--> Short-time Memory (Very brief storage, Limited capacity; information lost if not processed after 20 seconds) --Attention/Recognition--> Long-time Memory (Permanent Store, Unlimited capacity). Recall/Rehearsal loops back from Short-time Memory and Long-time Memory.]

2(b) Five (5) factors that aid long term memory and retrieval are:

(i) Rehearsal
When the information received in the sensory region is selected for further processing. This involves repeating or reciting the skill or information in order to store it in long-term memory.

(ii) Attention
This is the process of selecting vital information for further processing. Unless selective and proper attention is given to what is to be learned, learning is unlikely to be effective.

(iii) Re-Learning
This is where a person is required to learn again information which was experienced before. It is mainly for research purposes to determine whether re-learning would take more or less time than learning for the first time.

(iv) Organization
If the information learned fits into an organized pattern, it may easily be remembered. But when children are made to learn disjointed facts or unrelated materials, they easily get confused and be unable to organize it into the scheme they already have in their long-term-memory.

(v) Meaningfulness
If the information learned fits into a meaningful pattern it may easily be remembered.

3(a) Human Growth and Development
In order to get people to learn, the teachers have to understand their capabilities, what they already know, how they think, etc. Hence, the various facets of development – Physical, intellectual, linguistic, moral, social, etc are of great interest to the teacher. Besides, we do know that people are differently endowed and how their environments have made them different of special interest are the environmental factors that have been very beneficial in development. The teacher has to understand how a child grow and develop in order to guide his future.

3(b) Learning and Instruction
Educational Psychology is concerned with the general nature of the learning process, the factors that influence learning, how and when different types of materials are learnt. Do people learn skills? Of particular concern is how to ensure that knowledge acquired in school is transferred to life outside school not just immediately it is learnt but several years after the students have left school. For a teacher to be efficient, he has to understand the nature of learning processes, etc.

3(c) Psychological Measurement
Educational Psychology is interested in measuring those psychological characteristics on which individuals differ, e.g intelligence, learning ability, aptitude and in the applications of the results of the measurements to enhance learning and development.

4. The following are five (5) contributions of Stimulus Response Theorists to the process of education:

(1) The idea of teaching, starting from simple before getting on to complex ones, is one that any teacher can overlook to his own peril. The implication is that the teacher must be able to organize his ideas and skills in such a way that the learning of one naturally leads to another. A teacher who is not able to estimate the level of difficulty of his teaching may not easily find out whether his work makes any meaning to learners.

(2) S-R learning emphasizes that the teacher should take the needs of the learner into account. This is particularly so when the teacher thinks of the effects of classroom activities. In this connection, the teacher should arrange classroom learning in such a way that learning is pleasurable. Learning proceeds when the learner sees it as something that is desirable and which will be useful to him in one way or another.

(3) The theory (S-R) also emphasizes the importance of generalization and discrimination. These skills are very necessary for learning about how to classify objects, form concepts and train children in problem solving and creativity. Teachers need to begin at an early stage to offer children experiences which will enable them learn the skills of generalization and discrimination.

(4) Reinforcement is a major condition for most human learning to take place. Children need to be reinforced for engaging in learning activities. Teachers can use both non-material reinforcement (words) and material reinforcement to encourage the efforts which children make to acquire knowledge.

(5) S-R theory of learning also teaches us that reinforcement can be used to change the behaviour of children in and outside school. This is important in relation to managing the behaviour of children in class. Unusual behaviour such as lying, stealing, fighting, truancy, cheating etc, can be changed through teaching and reinforcement.

(6) The law of readiness stresses the importance of preparation for learning. The teacher must wait until the learner is ready to learn and should give those experiences which help to enhance readiness – preparatory of readiness can be provided in elementary classes.

5(a) Educational psychology is one of the branches of applied psychology which focused on educational processes. The name of this discipline entails two terms: Education and psychology.

Education may be seen as the attempt to shape or modify behaviour of an individual with a view of equipping him or her with desirable skills, habits and attitudes to adequately adjust to the communal life and contribute effectively to us growth and preservation. While psychology is a science concerned with the study of various types of behaviour. Thus, "Educational Psychology is the application of psychological principles, techniques and other resources of psychology to the solution of educational problems confronting the teacher as he attempts to direct the process of learning and growth of the child towards the objectives set by the teacher, the school and the society" (Oladele's, 1987).

5(b) (Repeated Question 2012, No. 2(b)).

(Repeated question 2011, No. 5(b))
Note: The physical and psychological factors are combined in the answer.

YEAR: 2014 PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION
(PDE 706)
TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) How would you define "Psychology" and 'Psychology of Education? (10 marks)
(b) Examine the scope and significance of educational psychology. (15 marks).

2. Discuss Piaget's stage theory of cognitive development pointing out the features of each stage. (25 marks).

3. Discuss any five (5) implications of the cognitive learning theory for learning and teaching (25 marks).

4. Enumerate and explain any five (5) ways teachers can promote remembering among their pupils. (25 marks).

5. a. Explain the term motivation (5marks).
b. Discuss any five (5) ways you would foster motivation in classroom teaching. (20 marks)

6. Write short notes on
a. Transfer of learning
b. Reinforcement
c. Punishment
d. Premack Principles; and
e. Social Learning (25 marks)

[Note: This document ends after the 2014 question paper. No answers are provided for the 2014 questions in the source PDF beyond the question listing above.]

1(a)i. Physical Development:
Physical development includes an understanding of who we are, our
growth. Growth here is the increase in various segments that are
forming in human body especially in size and weight.

(ii) Social Development:
Social development examines our changing abilities to relate to each
other.

(iii) Cognitive Development:
Cognitive Development describes changes in the way we think and
process information. Cognitive development include the way human
beings think, feel and act at different ages.

(b) Basic Principles Underlying Human Development Include:

(i) Maturation:
Except maturation occurs, certain actions or skills cannot take place in
individual. No matter how big a baby is, he or she must reach a certain
age before he or she is able to walk. Maturation, therefore, is the
increase in biological growth, thinking and feeling as a result of
environment and experience. Maturity is therefore the development of
those innate potentialities of a child in a sequential order. Activities
such as walking, crawling even talking largely depend on maturation.
No amount of encouragement or training that can make a child walk or
talk. There are some innates organs that must develop in order to
accomplish the task of walking. For example, when a child starts to talk
it is not good to force him to repeat some words, for it can affect the
child's development. The internal maturation process has to take place
for any given behaviour to be exhibited (Osarenren, 2001).

(ii). Learning:
This implies increased understanding of things and skills that results in
development. We learn the way to speak or the language of a place.
We learn how to dress and how to work and how to farm. We also
learn work and how to set the table before a meal. Learning is
therefore a permanent change in behaviour through experience.

(iii) Experience:
Experiences are set of understanding that result as individuals are
exposed to various activities or knowledge. They also lead to
development. It should also be understood that development follows
stages gradually. That is, it moves from one to the other. When
development is taking place in an individual it is from one stage to
another. People don't suddenly jump from one level to two levels
above except to the next level. People pass through each stage before
progressing into a later one. Secondly, it should also be noted that
there are individual differences in the rate of development. That is,
some people develop faster than others.

2(a) (i) Ages 0-1years:
A child needs to trust, thus parent need to be guided to give adequate
care and support for babies. An infant must not be neglected as shown
affection will develop a sense of trust. The foundation laid at this stage
matters because it is the determinant of subsequent behavioural
manifestation.

(ii) Ages 1-3years:
There is the need to be assisted to do things. They want to eat and
dress by themselves. The parents should be guided on how to
encourage their children when they try to do things themselves. For

instance, a child who tries to put on his shoes and couldn't should be
encouraged that he could do the task. Though he cries and expresses
inadequacy, efforts should be made to assist him and let him know that
he has ability to do it. According to Eggen and Kauchak (2000), overly
restrictive parents or those who punish minor accidents, such as
bedwetting or spills while eating can lead children to doubt their own
abilities. So parents should be guided on assisting their children along
these lines.

(iii) Ages 3-6:
Children are exploratory and inquisitive into so many things. They
make mistakes and fall into so many errors. Parents who punish or
criticize at the least mistake make the child to develop a sense of guilt
and lack of initiative thereby withdrawal begins. Towards the end of
this age, school begins so there is need for assistance for smooth
transition to school.

(iv) Ages 6-12:
The challenges at school sometimes overwhelm the child so
counselling service should be focused, directed at the child to assist
him to resolve the challenges which are too difficult so that the child
does not develop sense of inferiority.

(v) Ages 12-18:
The adolescent tries to answer, the question, "who am I?". So,
counselling effort should assist the youngster to resolve identity crises.

(vi) Young Adulthood:
Counselling intervention should be geared to resolving emotional
isolation and ability to love and to receive love freely.

(vii) Middle Adulthood:
At this stage, effort should be made to assist adults to be productive,
creative, committed to endeavour guiding the next generation.

(vii) Old Age:
Sense of integrity is required. Adults should accept responsibility for
the way they have lived and accept finality of death.

2(b) Erickson's theory of personal and social development has
undertaken a classification of the way in which emotional stages of
development are correlated with cognitive and social development. He
identified each stage of emotional development by the kind of
psychosocial crisis which is likely to occur and which, if handled
successfully, enable the individual to deal adequately with the kind of
crisis and problem that he will encounter at the next stage of
development. Each stage is thus described in terms of both the
favourable and unfavourable outcomes of dealing with the problems
that occur. (Lindgren, 1976). Meanwhile we have seen that Erickson
helps us to understand problems as we realized the diversities in
human social development.

3(i)&3(ii) (Repeated Question, 2014, NO.4)

4(a) Transfer of learning entails the understanding of an issue or a
thing and issuing that knowledge to solve future problems, that is,
problems the students had not encountered before.

Types of Transfer of Learning include:
(i) Negative Transfer; (ii) Positive Transfer;
(iii) General Transfer; (iv) Specific Transfer.

(i) Negative Transfer:
Negative transfer is a situation where previous knowledge affects the
performance in a particular event and hinders performance.

(ii) Positive Transfer:
This occurs when learning in one situation facilitates performance in
another.

(iii) General Transfer:
This implies the ability to use the experience gained in one and apply
them in a broad range of different situations.

(iv) Specific Transfer:
Specific transfer is the ability to use information in a particular setting
similar to the one in which the information is originally learned.

(5) Counselling theories are intellectual models designed to explain
and predict human behaviour. There are severally types of counselling
theories which are classified into two approaches vis: Cognitive and
affective approaches.

(A) Cognitive Approaches:
(1) Trait/factor approach; (2) Rational Emotive Therapy;
(3) Eclectic viewpoint; (4) Behavioural counselling.

(B) Affective Approaches:
(5) Psychological therapy; (6) Client-Centred counselling;
(7) Existentialism-Humanistic therapy; (8) Gestalt therapy;
(9) Indigenous counselling.

Significance of Counseling Theory to the Counsellor
According to Uba (1989) counseling theories are intellectual models
designed to explain and predict human behaviour.

Counsellors makes use of theories to enable them to find base line for
their counselling, that is, to say it helps the counsellor to understand
the client: Akindele, Adepoju and Daodu (2002). It also helps to find
out the thought process of different client. The aftermath of this
process is that the counsellee will see himself or herself in a new
perspective for he/she will gain insight into his/ her abilities, interest,
aspiration and personality traits and to provide solution to problems.

Question 6
Define Psychological test and explain its uses.

Answer
According to Makinde (1983) a test is generally a set of question,
problems, puzzles, symbols and exercises used to determine a
person's ability, aptitude knowledge, qualifications, interests and level
of social adjustment. He defined a psychological test as a standardized
or non-standardized measure of an individual's response to a
systematic sample of traits or stimuli from which inferences about
general behaviour can be made after the necessary qualification,
interest and level of adjustment. Olusakin (1996) explained that
psychological test measures a sample of behaviour for human
behaviour is so complex and variable that no single test can measure
the total behaviour at one time. In other words, there are specific
psychological test measuring different aspects of human behaviour,
after the result, a logistic statement about the individuals can be
made.

Uses Of Psychological Tests Include:
(1) Prediction:
Tests are given to obtain a measure of ability, aptitude, achievement
that provide a solid bases on which prediction can be made as to what
individuals will do later. And their chances of success in various
courses or vocation.

However, the prediction should be based on quantitative data or
information in order to provide reliable, accurate and balanced
judgments.

(2) Selection:
Many institutions both academics and non-academics reject and
accept individuals on the basis of their performance in the test. This
decision to employ an individual or to admit a student is a selection.

(3) Classification:
Classification is an arrangement for assigning or streaming students
into classes according to their ability or educational background of the
group. In school, pupils are classified according to age, intelligence
quotient (I.Q.) or performance.

(4) Placement:
Placement is the assigning of individual to different types of work levels
of work based on their discovered ability, interest, aptitude and
capabilities.

(5) Evaluation:
Psycological tests can be used to find out the strength and weakness
or the effectiveness of a programme curriculum and school guidance
programme.

It helps the school teacher or the school counsellor to determine the
degree to which educational or counselling objectives are being met. It
helps to know his or her students much better.

(6) Diagnosis:
Counsellor can use psychological test to find out the strength and
weakness of individual student in the class. It helps to reveal if the
problem is intellectual, vocational or social.

(7) Information Gathering
Psychological test provides information which determine the particular
counselling method to be used on the techniques that would be most
appropriate in resolving different client's problem.

According to Makinde (1984) a Counsellor develops psychological test
to secure accurate and reliable information about each clients abilities,
attitudes, aptitudes, interest and personal characteristics in order to
help the clients gain a better understanding of self to help predict future
performance at school, college, university or work, to help the client or
counselling arrives at decisions basic to planning an educational or
vocational future, to diagnose problems of inability to cope with
difficulties or with the social environment, growth and development, to
evaluate the outcome of counselling or guidance processes, and to
store information in cumulative record folder or personal confidential
files.

YEAR 2011 GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
(PDE 712) TIME: 2 HRS
INSTRUCTIONS:
This is a two (2) Credit Course.
Answer any two questions.
All questions carry equal marks.

1. Discuss how human development from childhood to old age
is directed by heredity and in influenced by environment.

2. (a) Outline piaget's cognitive development and explain, the
characteristics of each stage;
(b) Describe how you would give a counselling interventions for
1-3years old child in a kindergarten school.

3. Enumerate and explain the behaviour modification techniques.

4. Discuss how a teacher would assist the following exceptional
learners.
(i) The gifted and talented.
(ii) The slow and retarded.

5. (a) Mention and explain the types of counselling theories.
(b) Explain the significance of counselling theories to a teacher.

6. (a) What do you understand by the concept "psychological
Test"?
(b) Enumerate and discuss the basic roles of psychological tests.

The process of human development is an orderly sequence of events
from childhood to old age directed by heredity and influenced by
environment.

Heredity
It is believed that when the sperm fertilizes the ovum, all the
characteristics the new life will inherit from his/her parents and grand
parents are set. After fertilization nothing can be changed except by
accident. According to Thompson and Kevels, "every individual is
bestowed with hereditary characteristics at conception". Genes affect
development throughout life.

At conception, a sperm cell that consists of 23 chromosomes fuses
with eggs or ova of a female. The ovum also contains 23
chromosomes. The fusion will result into a single cell zygote that has
46 chromosomes. This zygote is the new individual that has his or her
own genetic traits and differences. These genetic traits determine how
the individual will come out to be in terms of looks, intelligence,
behaviour, weight, height, and so on.

Thus our inherited traits are largely responsible for many aspects of
our behaviour though there are some limitation.

Environment:
Environment implies all factors influencing the development of an
individual from childhood to old age. These include the difference
things that we come across, handle and observe around us. They have
means of influencing us. They include the various amenities that are
around us in our homes, schools, and the community where we are
located. The kind of environment we are exposed to determines a lot of
things we are capable of doing or otherwise. Some environments are

harsh while some are conducive. We have urban, rural, industrialized
and agrarian environments. All of these environments mould our life. It
determines what we eat and how we eat it, what we wear and how we
dress, what we learn and how we learn it. Hence, an environment
helps to shape our behaviour.

QUESTIONS 2
(a). Outline piaget's cognitive development and explain the
characteristics of each stage.
(b) Describe how you would give a counselling interventions for
1-3 year old child in a kindergarten school.

2(a) Piaget's theory maintained that children's cognitive development
follows a well-defined sequence of stages, beginning with sensory
motor stage and followed by the pre-operational stages etc. These
stages are highlight below with their characteristics and example.

STAGES CHARACTERISTICS AND EXAMPLES
Sensori-Motor Goal directed behaviours, object permanence
(0-2) (represent objects in memory) e.g. Use sensory and
motor capacities to make sense of the world. For
them, out of sight is out of mind.

Pre-Operational Rapid increase in language, ability with over
(2-7) generalized language symbolic thought. Dominated
by perception e.g. refers to all animals as dog.

Concrete-Operational Operates logically with concrete materials classified
(7-11) in serial order e.g. able to arrange numbers 1-10

Former-Operational He or she can solve abstract and hypothetical
(11-adult) problems; thinks combinationally e.g. able to
deduce the probable winner of the African nation's
cup.

2(b) In given a counseling intervention for 1-3 years old child in a
kindergarten school, I will make the parents/guardians or teachers to
be aware that the children in above age will want to do things by
themselves. There is need to be assisted to do things. They want to
feed and dress by themselves. Thus, parents should be guided on how
to encourage their children when they try to do things by themselves.
For instance, a child who tries to put on his shoes and couldn't should
be encouraged that he could do the task. Though he cries and
expresses inadequacy, effort should be made to assist him and let him
know that he has the ability to do it. According to Eggen and Kauchak
(2000) overly restrictive parents or those who punish minor incidents,
such as bedwetting or spills while eaten can lead children to doubt
their own abilities. So, parents should be guided on assisting their
children along these lines.

They include:
(1) Selective Attention;
(2) Schedule of Reward;
(3) Reinforces;
(4) Behavioural contracting.

(1) Selective Attention
It involves:
(a) Identifying the deviate behaviour;
(b) Ignoring inappropriate behaviour;
(c) Immediately reinforcing satistactory behaviour or any behaviour
approaching the target behaviour by paying attention (Shaping).
Satisfactory behaviours can also be reinforced in others
(Modelling).

(2) Schedule of Reward
In using this technique, three rules must be followed:
(a) Take into account action rather than feelings;

(b) Apply this technique to specific actions;
(c) Give rewards less frequently as behaviour improves.

Three list of behaviours must be drawn up:
(a) behaviour you approve of and that you wish to see continue;
(b) those that you would like to see become less frequent or intense;
(c) those that you would like to see become more frequent or intense.

Reinforces:
There are three types of reinforces namely:
(a) Social reinforces; (b) Intrinsic reinforces; (c) tangible reinforces.

Reinforcers Characteristics
(i) Social reinforcers Congratulations, approval and signs of
affection or attention eg
"congratulations !, keep it up", smile,
friendly gesture. Words or gestures of
approval immediately after appropriate
or desirable behaviour.

(ii) Tangible reinforcers Object that can be looked at eaten,
smelled, felt or played with eg money,
food, promotion, rewards or gifts.

(iii) Intrinsic reinforcers Well being obtained by virtue of the
activity itself. Satisfaction at having
accomplished a task well.

4 (i) The gifted and talented students are those students with highest
intelligent quotient are usually the gifted and the talented. They display
unique talents in specific domains. Sometimes regular classroom-
instruction is too slow for them. They need to be provided with

enrichment curriculum to encourage them. The teachers should
endeavour to identify such students and adjust or enrich their work
load; multi-task these gifted and talented ones with work that interest
them. Challenge them with extra or multi-tasking assignments that
would keep them in perspective.

4.(ii) The Slow and Retarded: These are students with mild learning
problem and are sometimes referred to as special education students.
children with handicaps or student with disability can be helped and
does not mean they are handicapped to learn. Such students do not
need to be separated from normal classroom instructions. Students
within this group include the mentally retarded, students with learning
disabilities and those with behaviour disorders. The teachers should be
made to know that students in this categories need special attention of
the teacher.

5 (a) Counselling theories are intellectual models designed to explain
and predict human behaviour. There are several types of counseling
theories which are classified into two approaches Viz: Cognitive and
Affective approaches. These are listed below:

Cognitive Approaches.
(1). Trait factor approaches;
(2). Rational emotive therapy;
(3). Eclectic viewpoint;
(4). Behavioural counselling.

Affective Approaches.
(1). Phychoanalytic therapy;
(2). Client centred counselling;
(3). Existentialism-Humananistic therapy;
(4). Gestalt therapy;
(5). Indigenous counselling.

5(b) Significance of Counselling Theories to a Teacher.

According to Uba (1989) counselling theories are intellectual models
designed to explain and predict human behaviour.
Counsellors make use of theories to be able to find base line for his
counseling. That is, it helps the cousellor to understand the client,
Akindele, Adepoju and Dadu (2002). Counselling theories help to find
out the thought process of different client. The aftermath of this
process is that the counsellee will see himself or herself in a new
perspective for he will gain insight into his abilities, interest, aspiration
and personality traits and to provide solution to problems.

1(a) List of stages, period and ages of human development

Stages Periods Ages
1. Prenatal period (1 Germinal period Conception to 2
week to 9 months weeks
pregnancy)
Embryonic period 3rd-8th week

2. Childhood stage Feotal period 9 week to birth
Early childhood 0-6 years

Middle childhood 6-11 years
3. Adolescence 12-19 years

4. Adult hood 20 years and above

1(b) Pre-natal Stage (1 Week To 9 Months Pregnacy)

This stage is very delicate because it starts from conception to the
completion of the pregnancy, that is, birth. It has three stages which
include: The germinal period, the embryonic period, the foetal period.

(i) Germinal Period:
It is a period that male sperm fertilizes the female ovum. It is also the
period at which the fertilized ovum now zygote, gets embedded in the
female uterus.

(ii) Embryonic Period:
The growth at this period is rapid and the embryo can be recognized
as male or female but the head is disproportionately larger than the
body. The counsellor service is to acknowledge the development that
is in progress.

(iii) Foetal Period:
There is a rapid physiological growth during this period. This period
marks the formation and the enlargement of the organs.
The service render by a counsellor here is to begin to feel movement
of the baby in the womb.

THE CHILDHOOD STAGE:
This stage is divided into two, namely: early childhood and the middle
childhood

(i) Early Childhood Stage:
By two(2) to five(5) years, a normal child had rapid acquisition of
language. Most cognitive activities are dominated by perception. The
child at this stage need to be helped to adjust to school. Again the child
should be assisted to relate and share with others. Children should be
encouraged to imbibe good behaviour patterns and assisted to
overcome maladjusted behaviour.

At this stage, counsellors can assist in identifying learning disabilities in
the children and also identify special gifts or talents.

(ii) The Middle Childhood Stage:
This stage according to piaget is referred to as concrete operational
stage. It is characterized by the ability to think logically about concrete
objects. The thinking at this stage is still tied to available experiences.
counseling services rendered at this stage requires establishing the
child properly at school, enhancing group activities. Other areas
include emotions. The child at this stage has outbursts of emotions
which are often violent and short-lived and between 10 and 12 years
age, the child is now less sensitive to blame and abuse as he used to
be.

Another area is peer influence. The child enjoys the company of
friends of their own sex at this stage. The child also trusts the adults
and teachers and obeys their instructions. This stage is delicate
because the foundation for deviant behaviour is laid at this stage. The
services rendered by a counsellor should assist to identify maladaptive
behaviour and help to modify such behaviour. Students should also be
assisted to cope with disabilities if they exist and cultivate right
attitudes and values.

The child also at this stage has fears and anxieties especially of the
dark, crawly objects and probably height. Counseling service rendered
here should focus on reducing fear.

ADOLESCENT STAGE:
This is around 12-19 years. It begins with puberty and ends with the
general cessation of physical growth.

Services rendered by counsellors at this stage include:
1. the adolescents cope with the changes occurring in their bodies;

2. with the feelings of shame, pride, hope, discouragement and
fears that adolescents always experience;

3. with the outbursts of emotions expressed by the adolescents;

4. with the interpersonal relationships that matter to them at this
time. So they should be encouraged to have healthy
relationships and positive self-concept;

5. in their curiousity on sexual relationships, thus, sex education is
important to this stage of development;

6. other areas of counselling should equip students with problem
solving skills, making decisions, time management skills and so
on;

7. In their independence tendencies from parents and authority,
service rendered by a counsellors should address, career
choices, parent-child relationships educational/vocational
information.

ADULTHOOD STAGE
This is the period when growth has reach its highest point, that is,
the end of "teens" and the beginning of "twenties". This is the time
when most individuals have grown up and begin to accept the
responsibilities of assault. They are then able to make their own
way in the world and behave like men and women. But,
unfortunately, many people never completely reach this stage
because they remain psychologically immature all their lives more
or less dependent upon others, and the behaviours shows traces of
infantilism.

The service the counsellor rendered here are to generally help the
individuals come to terms with themselves and also make decisions
that would not mar their self concepts, values, views and ways of
life.

Stage Age Characteristics
Trust Vs. Mistrust 0-3 years Trust in the world is developed
through consistent and
continuous love and support

Autonomy Vs. Shame 1-3 years Independence is fostered by
support and structure

Initiative Vs. guilt 3-6 years An exploratory and investigating
attitude results from meeting
and accepting challenges.

Industry Vs. Inferiority 6-12 years Enjoyment of mastering and
competences comes through
success and recognition of
accomplishment

Identity Vs. Confusion 12-18 years Personal, social, sexual and
occupational identity comes
from success in school and
experimentation with different
roles.

Intimacy Vs Isolation Young Openness to others and the
Adulthood development of intimate
relationships result from
interaction with others.

Generativity Vs. Middle Productivity, creativity and
Stagnation age concern for the next generation
are achieved through success
on the jobs and a growing
sense of social responsibilities

Integrity Vs. Despair Old age Acceptance of one's life is
achieved by an understanding
of a person's place in life-cycle.

3(a) Enumerate the types of transfer of learning.
(b) Explain six (6) factors affecting transfer of learning.

3(a) Types of transfer of learning are:
(i) Negative Transfer: A situation where previous knowledge
affects the performance in a particular event and hinder
performance.

(ii) Positive Transfer: Occurs when learning in one situation
facilitates performance in another.

(iii) General Transfer: General transfer is the ability to use the
experience gained in one and apply them in a broad range of
different situations.

(iv) Specific Transfer: This is the ability to use information in a
particular setting similar to the one in which the information is
originally learned.

3(b) Six (6) factors affecting transfer of learning are:
(a) Similarity:
When two learning situations are related, transfer occurs.
For instance, plural of words that ends with "F" can easily be
transferred, like wife to wives, knife to knives.

(b) Depth of Original Understanding:
Transfer requires high level of in-depth understanding. Topics,
which students understand very well, can be easily transferred.
Counsellors should assist client to focus on issues, gain insight
into the options available rather than load of information
presented.

(c) Quality of Learning Experience:
Quality is the extent that the learning information or situation that
students are exposed to are relevant, like understanding and
memorizing the multiplication table and being able to use it for
division.

(d) Context:
For transfer to occur, the context must be real to the students. It
must be real world situation which students are familiar with. Not
abstract or imaginary words.

(e) Variety of Learning Experiences:
For easy transfer of learning experiences must be tackled from
different perspectives. Inadequate variety results in students
under generalising and forming all incomplete concept.

(f) Meta-Cognition:
This refers to the students' ability to monitor, reflect upon and
improve their learning strategies and problem solving. Once a
student is able to achieve this, it can then be transferred to any
situation.

4(a) Five (5) types of behavioural difficulties according to Karffiman's
Typology, (1989) are:

Types of Behavioural Behavioural Characteristics
Difficulties Observable in Secondary Schools
1. Hyperactivity and related High incidence of disruptive behaviour
difficulties beyond person's control;
Distraction (attention problems);
Impulsiveness (acting without thinking);
Behaviour that differs in frequency and
intensity from "normal behaviour".

2. Obvious behavioural Persistent anti-social behaviour that
difficulties prevent young people from functioning
normally in everyday life;
Openly aggressive or hostile
behaviour, such as hurting others or
directly the teacher's authority.

3. Hidden behavioural Theft, lying, arson and vagrancy;
difficulties Refusal to conform; School-related
problems (absenteeism, expulsion,
academic failure and lack of discipline);
More frequent disruptive behavior at an
age when most young people have
become less aggressive.

4. Juvenile delinquency International use of drugs to induce
and drug use physiological or phychological effects.

5. Behavioural difficulties Problems of introversion ;
related to anxiety, Behaviours associated with anxiety or
isolation and other isolation (e.g. feelings of inferiority,
problems. exaggerated self-concern, shyness,

fear, hypersensitivity);
Inability to establish mutually satisfying
social relationship; Unfounded fears;
Phobias; Obsessions (repetitive
thoughts);

4(b) Three (3) Behavioural techniques and their sub-headings include:

(i) SELECTIVE ATTENTION
This technique should be tried first. It involves:
a. identifying the deviate behaviour;
b. ignoring inappropriate behaviour;
c. immediately reinforcing satisfactory behaviour or any behaviour
approaching the target behavior by paying attention (shaping).
Satisfactory behaviours can also be reinforced in others
(modeling).

(ii) SCHEDULE OF REWARD
In using these techniques, a three rules must be followed.
(a) Take into account action rather than feelings;
(b) Apply this technique to specific actions;
(c) Give reward less frequently as behaviour improves.

Also, lists of behaviour must be drawn up:
(a) Social reinforcers ;
(b) Intrinsic reinforcers;
(c) Tangible reinforcers;

5(a) (Repeated Question, (2010, No.6)
Note: Answer only the uses of Psychological Test.

5(b) Four (4) types of phychological test are:
(i) Intelligent Test:
According to Oladele (1987) intelligent tests throw some light on
an individual's general mental ability to reason and capacity to
learn. It is useful for assessing individual's intelligence quotient
(I.Q.) level of intellectual functioning and screening academic and
vocational groups. Most of the items include memory questions,
numbers, stories, symbols, forms and vocabulary questions,
space perception, abstract ideas, and logics, etc.

(ii) Interest Inventories:
Are used to measure individual feelings and area of preference in
school subject vocational and occupational choice. Interest tests
are sometimes used to get a measure of an individuals feelings
of like or dislike, concern or curiosity toward an activity. This
includes self-estimates, interviews, check list, Vocational Interest
Inventory (V.I.I.) and Motivation for Occupation and Preference
Scale (MOPS) by late Prof. C.A.G.M. Bakare.

(iii) Attitude Tests
Anastasi (1982) defined attitude as a tendency to react
favourably or unfavourably towards a designated class of stimuli
such as national, or ethical group, custom or an institution. An
example include, Sentence Completion Test Attitude Towards
Age (SOTATOA) by F.T. Bickersteth.

(iv) Personality Tests
Personality tests are instrument for measuring the affective or
non-intellectual aspects of behaviour for personal counselling
Oladele (1982). They are used to measure such aspects of
personality as emotional stability, friendliness, motivation,
dominance interests, attitudes, leadership, sociability and
introversion or extroversion. This type of tests should only be
used by experts who have been trained.

1(a) five (5) characteristic of a counsellor include: according to
Idowu(1998) include:
(i) A counsellor must have goodwill towards his or her client. This
means a counsellor must be honest and sincere towards the
welfare of his or her client;

(2) A counsellor must have the ability to be present for others. This
implies he/she must feel for others as they go through their
problems before him or her;

(3) A good counsellor must recognized his or her personal strengths
and limitations as he or she relates with the client;

(4) A good counsellor must be willing to take risk with all the clients
he or she will relate with. Taking the risks because you may not
be too sure of how your client will react to certain information you
may present to him or her;

(5) A good counsellor must be patient. Patience is involved in
dealing with all human beings but for the counsellor he or she
needs special patience with his her client.

Other characteristic of the counsellor include ability to listen , accept
challenges and being skilful.

1(b) Counsellor's expected roles in educational settings
(i) Counsellor's Roles To Students:
(a). assists students to understanding themselves to develop self
awareness such as knowing their actual values, interests,
capacities, attitudes, strengths and weaknesses;

(b) helps students to understand the school environment and all the
resources therein, for example library, laboratory etc;

(c) assists students to adjust to problems within and outside the
school, for example, adjustment to academic work and opposite
sex study habits etc;

(d) to provide vocational information covering nature and types of
jobs, duties involved, job requirement, working conditions, etc;

(e) to provide information for further studies including types of
institutions, methods of application, entry requirement etc;

(f) assists the emotional disturbed children to understand their
problems and find solution to them;

(g) helps in the orientation of new students and also acts as guest
speakers on guidance issues to the schools;

(h) refers students to remedial classes so as to improve their
academic performance.

(ii) Counsellor's Roles To The Teacher:
(a) encouraging teachers to participate actively in the guidance
programme and also serve as referral;

(b) to help teachers change their negative beliefs, attitudes and
behaviour towards their students;

(c) to assist teachers to discover ways of handling students with
learning problems through meaningful dialogue and discussions;

(d) encouraging them to recognize individual differences among
students with empathy, positive feelings and regards;

(e) discussing the curriculum with a view to discovering how it
affects both teachers and students or the possibility of modifying
it in case of any problem.

(iii) Counsellor's Roles To The School Administrator:
(a) provides useful advices on issues related to discipline;
(b) advices the principal and other administrators on how to handle
students complaints.
(c) gives pieces of advice on how to minimize retrogressive policies
and rules that can cause misunderstanding between the
administration and the teachers or students;
(d) arranges wide range of school acheivement and ability tests. They
also arranges extra-curricular activities for the students;
(e) to assist the administration in enrolment, placement and
orientation of new students.

(iv) Counsellor's Roles To The Parents:
(a) helping parents to discover the potentialities and limitations of their
children through discussions;

(b) helping parents understand their children's attitudes, interests,
aptitudes of their children with regards to the world of work and
educational planning;

(c) to advice parents on what the children needs and what they are
do not need so as to curb unnecessary spending of money or
displacing material wealth at school;

(d) to provide information to parents regarding school programme,
subjects/courses offered, school policies and how these would
affect the growth and development of their children;

(e) making parents to participate actively in the guidance programme
and also helping to bring parents and teachers together to discuss
several issues about their children.

2(a) Kolo (1992) identified the following differences between Guidance
and Counselling.

GUIDANCE COUNSELLING
1. Student (client) directed locus Tutor (counsellor directed)
of control moves towards locus of control remains
student (client). This means with the tutor (counsellor).
the clients is more involved at
every stage in counselling.

2. The tutor (counsellor is a The tutor (counsellor) is
facilitator/enabler. He is not information/advice giver.
the decision maker.

3. Client and counsellor jointly Counsellor determines
negotiate a contact about objectives and methods.
agenda and methodology

4. Client participates in assessing Assessment/diagnosis and
needs and evaluating progress. evaluation is in domain of
the counsellor.

5. Learning is seen as transferable. Learning is seen as
What is learnt in one context is specific to the problem in
seen utilizable in other eg. The question. Feelings are not
learning of a skill such as regarded as important in
breaking down problem into its learning. Learning about a
component parts. subject is not seen as
involving self discovering.

2(b) Principles Of Guidance And Counselling
The principles identified by Okon (1984) and Idowu (1998) include:

(i) Guidance and Counselling is for everybody;

(ii) Guidance and Counselling is a sequential, continuous and
development process which starts from birth to death;

(iii) Guidance and Counselling must be provided in a way that
ensures human dignity and worth;

(iv) All Guidance activities must emphasize the will for each student
to learn more about himself in an accurate and systematic
manner;

(v) Effective leadership should be the watch-word for any effective
guidance and counselling programme.

(i) Guidance and Counselling is for everybody
The service of Guidance and Counselling is not for those with special
handicaps but it is also meant for all "normal" developing children and
adults;

(ii) Guidance and Counselling must be provided in a way that
ensures human dignity and worth.
The full and adequate development of the individual must be given
preference. It should be seen as encouraging individuals to attain
maximum satisfaction, to realize their potentials and to be a way of
self. No one who has gone through counselling should feel inadequate.

(iii) Guidance and Counselling is a sequential continuous and
developmental process, which starts from birth to death:
This means that guidance and counselling runs from the nursery
school through the primary, secondary to the tertiary institutions. It is
not a once and for all event but a process which is an integral part of
the total educational programme throughout the school life of an
individual.

(iv) All guidance activities must emphasis the will for each
student to learn more about himself in an accurate and
systematic manner.

Through the use of well-planned instructional strategies and appraisal
techniques, individuals can become more knowledgeable about
themselves and about the world about them. Without such knowledge,
an individual cannot exercise intelligently the right to free choice in
educational, vocational and personal social fields.

(v) Effective leadership is the watch-word for any effective
guidance and counselling programme.

Guidance counsellors who are qualified, well trained and competent
are expected to function in schools and other settings. Such
professionals would be able to enlist the support of staff members in
effecting guidance activities.

(i) Expansion In The Enrolment Of Pupils/Students In Primary
And Secondary Schools.
Before 1960 to when Nigeria gained independence from Britain to
present, enrolment in all stages of our educational system has been on
the increase. Due to this increase, Fafunwa (1990), a one time minister
of education, after examining the enrolment trends, which of course did
not include actual application made for enrolment stated that
"Mandatory student guidance and counselling service should be
established in all Nigerians institutions of higher learning and through
such services, the true conditions of Nigerian economy and its ever
changing labour market situation and requirements would be exposed
to students choice of fields and skill of study and calculating in them
the acceptance of dignity and more superior option of leaving
institutions of higher learning well prepared both as possible paid

employees of others and creators of job for self and others both the
formal and the informal sectors of the economy". (p.16)

(ii) Repeated Changes In The Education System
since after independence, Nigeria has witnessed a number of changes
in the education sector. In the past, a pupil needed to spend 8 years in
the primary school, 5 years in the secondary school, 2 years in the
higher school, and 3 years in the university (8-5-2-3). Later, the 6 years
of primary, 5 years of secondary, 2 years of higher school, and 3 years
of university system was recommended and Adopted. Currently that is
vogue. Already, there are calls in various sectors to change the system
to 6-3-3-3-3 to include three years in any college of education or
polytechnics. The changes can cause confusion for the individual,
which again demands the guidance service.

(iii) Unrest In Universities And Other Tertiary Institutions
Apart from repeated changes in the education system, school year has
changed repeatedly during the last few years.
At one point, we were operating a school year from January to
December, it was later changed to a school year running from
September to June.

Currently thinking is on moving back to January to December school
calendar year. All these changes are capable of disrupting the
academic planning of youths, their vocational needs and plans.

Nigerian tertiary education is populated by students body with various
personality make up, with different needs, and traits. There are
students who are there to fill their existential vacuum. There are others
who are there because their parents wants them to be there. There are
those who have genuine desire to study and get degree for secure
future.

(iv) Problem of National Integration
Nigeria, as judged by the 1993 census, has about 104 million
inhabitants with population density of about 800 people per square
kilometer. Three major linquistic groups, the Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba
are found in three main regions-Northern-Eastern and Western parts of

the country respectively. Each group and section of the country is
clamouring for a share in the national cake. The consequence has
been political instability, religious intolerance, tribal loyalties, and all
forms of vices which have militated against the development of the
country. Okon (1984) has observed that the survival of Nigeria as a
nation depends largely on own degree of tolerance not only our ethnic
or political differences but also of our religious differences. Our
economic, social and political stability depends, to a large extent, on
the ability of every citizen to possess some measure of common
understanding, attitudes, beliefs, skills and purposes. These attributes
can be inculcated in youths very early in their educational
development. Thus, the inevitability of guidance and counselling in this
respect cannot be overstressed.

(v) Problems of Cultism
Obviously there have been cultic activities in Nigeria tertiary institutions
since the beginning of Nigerian Independence, they are only just now
assuming new dimensions. The negative tendencies in these societies
and cults need to be exposed to individual through guidance activities.

4(a) (five) 5 impediments to the development of effective guidance and
counseling programmes in Nigeria include:

(i) Relative Newness of Guidance and Counselling in Nigeria.
While Western education was introduced into the country about
1842, Guidance and Counselling was formally introduced in
1958. That is after more than a century. Educational instruction
and administration has been entrenched in the educational
system long before it. Some educational practitioners tend to
view it as an intruder.

(ii) Blurred Role of the Guidance Counsellor
Several people in the society do not know the specific roles of the
Counsellor. Even the school settings, where awareness is expected to
be high school personnel such as teachers and principals do not
understand or they misconstrue the functions of the Counsellors. For
instance, Makinde (1981) wrote that head teachers see them as rivals
instead of helpers.

(iii) Feeling of Suspicion of the Role/Integrity of Counsellors
Some school personnel still see the counsellors as having a "hidden
agenda" or something to hide when a client goes into the counselling
room (where this is available). Some give counsellors negative or
derogatory labels. This is more so where the other workers doubt the
moral integrity of counsellors who give individual counselling to young
ones. This feeling becomes more serious when a male Counsellor
treats female students and gives the interaction high confidentiality,
yet, counselling demands reasonable privacy.

(iv) Confidentiality
Clients expect their secrets or priviledged information to be kept secret
or confidential and not exposed to others. However, referrals agents
such as teachers, peers, parents and principals expect counsellors to
divulge such information to them. Failure of the counsellor to reveal the
"secret" may raise the degree of suspicion of his activities. Revealing
the secrets leads to loss of faith in counselling and counselors on one
part, will lose clients and friends of such clients and counselling will be
the big loser on the long run. Yet, all these are happening.

(v) Lack of commitment of Government Officers
Although, the Federal Government entrenched the guidance and
counseling programme in the NPE, (1981), there is still much to do
when it comes to practical support and its implementation. More
committed action will help the growth of the profession. For instance,
there should be adequate planning that would map out both short and
long term goals as well as strategies of evaluating the progress being
made.

4(b) Five (5) Attributes Of A Good Counsellor
According to Nweke, et al (1989) and Makinde (1983), the attributes of
a good counsellor include:

(i) having a caring attitude and sincere interest in people;
(ii) flexible in thought and action;
(iii) attractive, approachable and pleasant;
(iv) calm in the presence of emergency;
(v) patient, resourceful and dedicated.

In general, the guidance counsellor is a professional who is expected
to maintain harmonious relationships with groups and individuals. All
these qualities and attributes help the counsellor to be effective

5(a) Rehabilitation Counselling;
This kind of counselling deals with problems arising from sudden life's
disruption such as association with disabling accidents, wars, natural
catastrophes (such as flood, earthquakes and fires) or mass
retrenchment and loss of employment.

(b) Vocational Guidance and Counselling:
This is an aspect of counselling to ensure that each child is assisted in
making right and realistic choice of career. It deals into problems of
selection, training for and adjustment to occupations.

(c) Educational Guidance and Counselling:
This implies the assistance given to pupils individually through group
techniques to help them function more effectively in their school
programme. It helps the pupil to develop to their maximum potentials. It
assists students with learning problems, and of education in generality.

(d) Rational Emotional Therapy (RET) Of Albert Ellis (1913-1972)
Rational Emotive Therapy focuses on Man's thought. He pointed out
that man is both rational and irrational being. When he is rational, he is
effective, happy and competent. However, occasional emotional
disturbances or neurotic behaviour are the results of illogical or
irrational thinking Makinde (1984) i.e. it is what we say to ourselves
about those events that determine the way we feel or act.

This implies that human beings have ability for self-preservation as
well as self-destruction.

6(a) Personality:
Lovell, K. (1973) defines it as "the whole person's outstanding
characteristics, his abilities, his emotional and social traits, his interests
and attitudes".
Barnes, et-al (1984) tried explaining the concept in his quest to
understand answers to the questions "Am I me or am I the situations",
pointing out the inescapable interaction between personal disposition
and the situations.

Both definitions attempt to point at the significance of inherent
biological qualities of human beings and the environment and their
effects on human personality.

6(b) (Repeated Question, 2012, NO.6(b))

YEAR 2014 GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING 1
(PDE 712)
TIME: 2HRS
INSTRUCTIONS:
(i) This is a two (2) credit course.
(ii) Answer four (4) questions.
(iii) All questions carry equal marks.

1. List and explain any five (5) factors militating against the
development of guidance and counselling services in Nigeria's
secondary schools. (25marks)

2. List and explain the goals of any five (5) Guidance services you
know. (25marks)

3. List and briefly describe any five (5) roles each of counsellors to
the following:
(a) Students; (b) teachers; (c) School Administrators; (d) Community;
(e) parents; (25marks)

4. Explain any three (3) developmental characteristics of
adolescence boys and any two (2) of girls respectively.
(25 marks)

5. (a) Explain any three (3) tenets of rational emotive therapy
(25 marks)
(b) Discuss any two (2) tenets of Albert's Irrational Belief Theory.
(10marks)

6. Explain the following:
(a) Maturation, (b) Transfer of learning,
(c) Heredity, (d) Environment, (e) Psychological test. (25marks)

(Repeated Question, 2013, No.4(a)

Note: list the five (5) points out first before explaining them.

The five (5) goals of Guidance services are:
(i) Orientation services; (ii) Appraisal services;
(iii) Information services; (iv) Planning and Placement services;
(v) Follow-up, research and evaluation services.

(i) Orientation service
This service is designed to assist students to adjust better when in new
environment. At the commencement of each school year, many new
students often need orientation in our primary, secondary and tertiary
institutions. Inability to make adequate adjustment may have serious
negative consequences on the part of students.

Through orientation service, such new students are introduced to
physical plant facilities in their new school environment, rules and
regulations, administrative set-up, school clubs and societies, norms
governing use of facilities and how to benefit optimally from the
educational services of the school especially that of school guidance.

Through orientation, new students are made to adjust emotionally,
mentally, socially and physical to their new environment. For
orientation to be beneficial as a guidance service, Kolo (1992) said:

1. it must be well planned and executed;

2. all key speakers must be contacted to prepare their speeches;

3. participants must be prepared to ask relevant questions;

4. the hall must be large enough to take all participants;

5. key places of visit must be informed earlier so that they can receive
the participants into their establishment.

(ii) Appraisal Services:
The goal of this service is that it is used to collect information on the
individual so as to help in the process of guidance and counselling. In
appraisal service you evaluate or assess the individual to know what
he or she has or does not have, this service is important if the
counsellor would attempt an accurate diagnosis and therefore design
an effective counselling treatment plan for clients. A variety of methods
of evaluation can be used such as the use of psychological tests or
even observation or interviews.

The counsellor makes a choice of, the type of method to use in
appraisal depending on the nature of the problems presented. At
times, clients educational and emotional maturity, the expertise of the
counsellor, resources available and other situational variables
determine the method of appraisal to use. This service provides a
frame work of assisting the client to acquire and organize useful
information about himself / herself and thus be in a position to use this
information in making vital life decisions and choices.

(iii) Information Services
This is the collection of data for the clients. This service is designed to
enhance and broaden the opportunity awareness of students. This is
so because it provides students with knowledge of education,
vocational and social opportunities so that they would be able to make
informed and enlightened decisions and choices. There is perhaps a
world of difference between a decision made on the basis of naked

ignorance and that are made from the premises of sounds information.
The basic goal information is to ensure that all vital decisions and
choices by students are made on the basis of valid and reliable data.

(iv) Planning and Placement Services
The goal of this service is to assist to secure appropriate placement in
a programme of study, work-study programme. Placement services
must be based on good understanding of the strengths and weakness
of clients or students seeking placement. A placement service means
putting individual in a position that best suits his or her interest, ability,
personality and even age. To be able to do proper placement, a lot of
information or appraisal services must be carried out on individual.
Placement can be in the school i.e. into classes, clubs and societies,
halls of residence and even games and sports. Also placement can be
done in the place of work, e.g., who to be a head teacher, manager or
who can best be employed as a typist.

(v) Follow-up, Research and Evaluation Services.
The goal of this service seeks to determine the effectiveness of school
programme. Here, attempts are made to evaluate the outcomes of
school-guidance services. Some of the expected outcomes of school
guidance services are enhanced academics performances of students,
better problem solving and decision making skills, decrease improved
teacher-pupil relationship, and adjustment on the part of pupils and a
host of other positive outcomes. The main focus of follow-up services
is to ensure that school guidance is achieving the goals that it has set
out to achieve.

3(a), (b), (c),(e) (Repeated Question,2013,No.1(b)
Note: See 3(d) on the next page.

3(d) Counsellor's Roles To The Community

(i) The counsellor should create awareness to the community that
they are referral resource base for the effective school guidance
programme;

(ii) The counsellor should require the community to have interest on
the activities they provide to enable them benefit from it;

(iii) He helps the community to provide avenues or opportunities for
work study programme for the students;

(iv) Advising organisation of field trips to places of occupational
interest in which the community must involve participation;

(v) Providing placement services which must be based on the good
understanding of occupational and educational opportunities in the
community.

(vi) Helping the community to provide resource persons for career
talks and information needed in counselling.

Three (3) Developmental Characteristics Of Adolescence Boys
Include:
(i) Puberty In Boys:
The initial sign of puberty in boys is the enlargement and maturation of
the testicles, penis, scrotum, seminal vescicles and postrate gland,
which generally occur around the age of 12 years. Pubic hair appears
at the same time with under arm and facial hairs following later.

At around 13 to 14years, boys also begins to put on weight, height and
muscles. The shoulders start to broaden and testicles begin to produce
sperm. The ejaculation associated with "wet dream" occurs at night.

Their voices also change and "crack" around this time causing a lot of
embarrassment to them. Some who have wished for a career in
singing may have to drop out until adult voice is achieved.

(ii) Growth Of Bones;
There is a rapid growth of bones at the early and middle years of
puberty, which later slows down. At this stage, muscles grow up and
stretch covering the growing bones. In the early stage of puberty, the
legs and arms grow un-proportionately, almost twice as fast as those
of the trunk. That is why the adolescence look leggy. The bones in the
head continues to grow during adolescence, the overall shape of the
face changes altering its width; particularly in boys. Their lower jaws
become bigger.

(iii) Increase Ability In Understanding:
Intellectually, unlike the childhood stage, the adolescent can reason
better and deeper. With his increased ability in understanding, the
adolescent can attempt the solution of difficult problems. They engage
in critical discussions of national and international problems.
Sometimes, the adolescent thinks he has the answer to all problems.
This may explain why university undergraduate very often clash with
authorities.

The Two (2) Developmental Characteristics Of Adolescence Girls
Include:
(i) Puberty In Girls:
In girls puberty begins with the enlargement of breasts, maturation of
ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina. Generally, there is an
increase in weight, since the height increases. Hip broadens and thin
layers of fat develop under the skin. That is what gives girls a feminine
shape.

However, with the enlargement of breasts, sometimes uneven
development occurs, which later corrects itself.

Menstruation starts between the ages of 12 and 14 years but
sometimes earlier. This may be due to nutrition, as food is essential for
growth. Malnutrition affects growth causing low weight and may affect
bodily functions like the start of menstruation. Adolescents therefore,
need a good balanced diet for normal growth and development.

(ii) Growth Spurt
This is a sudden and rapid shooting up in height. There are variation in
ages as well as in the order of events in puberty.

Girls generally start growth spurt earlier than boys. For a brief period,
girls may be taller than boys of the same age. Girls may start their
growth spurt at about 11 years but grow fastest between 12 and 13
years and may slow down by the age of 14.

5(a) Three (3) tenets of Rational Emotive Therapy Are:
In the A-B-C theory of personality,
(i) A is the existence of a fact, event or behaviour of another person;

(ii) B is the belief about the event that happened in A, or self
analysis and definition of A or interpretations of A being awful;

(iii) C is ones reaction to the event or behaviour of a person causing
emotional disturbances or unhappiness as derived from A. A
does not cause but B does.

His goal of counselling is to demonstrate to the client that the way
client perceives his situation is the source of his emotional
disturbances, and also to bring into focus the illogical and irrational
ideas so as to help him to re-adjust his thinking in a rational and logical
way.

The counsellor should show the clients that he is illogical and points
out the relationship between his illogical ideas and his unhappiness or
emotional disturbance. The counsellor must make the client
understand that as long as he maintains his irrational ideas, his
unhappiness will persist.

Finally, the counsellor should assist the client to change his irrational
thinking and ideas and to be more rational.

5(b) Two (2) Tenets of Albert's Irrational Belief Theory
(i) One's past history is an all-important determiner of one's present
behaviour and that because something once strongly affected
one's life, it should indefinitely has a similar effect;

(ii) That one should be thoroughly competent, adequate and
achieving in a possible respect if one is to consider oneself worth
wile.

1. Imperfect as the Spartan education system was, it has some positive messages for us today. First, we need to learn that for excellence in athletics, there must be constant training and the earlier the youths are identified for such physically demanding roles, the better. For instance, in ancient Olympic competitions, Sparta usually defeated all other city-states, winning more than half of the laurels. These days, most families frown on letting youths fend for themselves whereas there may be a point in letting youths try it if only to realize that survival depends on it.

Furthermore, education in Sparta promoted the city state to a position of military prominence. It was a type of education that promoted discipline both of the body and of the mind. Citizens were brought up not to expect any life of opulence and of pleasure. In the process, the state grew in prominence and was able to dominate others. To this extent we can say that if any country wants to make progress and achieve greatness, it has to train youths to undergo and imbibe a life of discipline and indeed some degree of severity. As we can see, today, countries which have achieved military and industrial greatness are known to engage their youths in a sort of training that hardens the body and the mind; we need military greatness if our borders are to be dissension, but then, we need a calm atmosphere in which to settle down, think of development, inventions and manufacturing.

2. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 - February 17, 1827) was a Swiss reformer whose theories laid much of the foundation of modern elementary education. His contribution on educational development include:

i. Development/Establishment of Audio-Visual education;
ii. Establishment of an orphanage in 1774 to train young ones to become self-sufficient;
iii. He wrote many books where he put down his ideas;
iv. Creation of new teaching methodology for elementary education; for teachers to enhance new teaching practice and philosophy.

(Repeated Question 2013, No. 5)

4. The recommendation of the commission (1959) which paved the way for the development of higher education in Nigeria are listed below:

i. The federal Government should give support for the development of new university planned for 1955;
ii. University College Ibadan should move from its conservative position, widen its curriculum and develop into a full university;
iii. All the universities should have B.A (Education) degree courses;
iv. A National Universities Commission should be set up to have undisputed control over the affairs of the universities; particularly, in terms of finance, staff and course;
v. The new Nigeria Universities should be independent of one another and each should confer its own degrees;

i. The Federal Government should give support for the development of new University Planned for 1955.
The Eric Ashby commission's recommendation gave support to the establishment of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, University of Ife, Ile-Ife and the University of Lagos, Lagos. It was after 1970, that state government joined in the establishment of Universities while the Federal Technology and others for Agriculture. Each of these twenty-one (21) states of the Nigerian Federation nearly has two Universities. With this recommendation, there were expansions of Universities.

ii. University College Ibadan should move from its conservative position, widen its curriculum and develop into a full University.
By 1960, the University College Ibadan (1947) had established itself as a reputable institution of higher learning. It was also making a great contribution to the man-power needs of Eric Ashby Recommendation Nigeria. But the need for a larger out-put of University graduation was increasingly felt and commonly expressed. For eg as far back as 1955, there were serious thoughts and attempts to establish another University. Ibadan was criticized for its low annual intake said to be conditioned by its residential nature. Partly because of these criticisms the commission recommended that it should move from its conservative position, widen its curriculum and develop into a full University, which is now called the University of Ibadan.

All the Universities should have B.A (education) degree courses.
When the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, was established, it took the lead in starting a new teachers programme known as the B.A., BSC, and Eric Ashby commission. This meant that a student could combine education courses with one or two teaching subjects and offer them throughout the student's four years to graduate. This replaced the traditional system of taking a degree before coming for a one year diploma in education.

iii. Creation of National University Commission.
A National University Commission (NUC) as a regulatory body for the Nigeria Universities should mentor and have undisputed control over the affairs of the Universities, mostly in areas of finance, staff and courses. This is to remove the excessiveness of the individual Universities.

iv. Independence of New Nigerian Universities.
The new Nigerian Universities according to Eric Ashby recommendations should be independent of one another and each should confer its own degrees. The new Nigerian Universities should be autonomous in pioneering its academic and non-academic activities to other Universities.

(Repeated Questions 2013 No. 2(a) and 2014, No. 1(a))

(Repeated Question 2013, No. 6)

YEAR: 2011 HISTORY OF EDUCATION PDE 701 TIME: 2 HOURS
====================================================================

General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. Critically examine the Athenian and Spartan systems of education and draw out their similarities and differences

2. Write short notes on each of the following great education thinkers with particular reference to their contributions to Nigerian education system.
i. John Locke (1632 - 1712) and,
ii. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712)

3. Describe the major features of education in ancient Egypt.

4. Discuss the main educational idea of Aristotle (384 - 322 BC)

5. Explain the major threats facing the development of education in Nigeria today.

6. Enumerate and discuss the nature and goals of traditional system of education in Nigeria.

1. Athens was a Greek city-state whose education was mainly for boys, as there was no specific type of education for girls who were entrusted to their mothers for moral and domestic training.

The Athenian played an organized system of education which was structured into three types of schools for boy. These were:-
a. The letters school for reading and writing;
b. The music school for lyric, poetry and lyre including learning and recitation of poems;
c. The gymnastic school for physical training schooling continued till the age of eighteen. Between the eighteen and twenty years, the boys received military training, after which they were free choose which career to specialize in.

Sparta was one of the ancient Greek city states and was known for its military glory and exploits. Education in Sparta began from age 7 to 20 years, but before them, mothers brought up children in an atmosphere of severity and harshness. Throughout life girls were given a type of education that prepared them for their role as wives and mothers in an atmosphere of severe discipline.

Boys in Sparta were enrolled into formations corresponding to successive age grade. These were divided into smaller units under the authority of comrades of their own age or of young officers. It was a collective education, which progressively removed them from the family and subjected them to garrison life. Everything was organized; they were equally trained to obey, building to the other of their Superiors.

Similarities between Education in Athens and Sparta
Originally, Athens was like Sparta in its approach to the education of the citizens, with a heavy orientation towards the military training. That is the type of education oriented towards the future duties of the soldier. This type of education observed in Athens and Sparta promoted discipline, both of the body and of the mind of the citizens.

Difference between Education in Athens and Sparta
The Athenian education is drastically different from that of the Spartans in that the Athenian education was more liberal and oriented toward the civil Society, while the education in Sparta was fashioned for the development of military life (Prowess).

In Athens, they operated an organized system of education (evaluated system of education) for eg, the educational system for boys was highly structured as there were three types of schools for the boys. This type of structured system of education was not so in Sparta.

The Sophists, itinerant teachers, influenced the education of Athenian youths greatly in that they contributed to the teaching of grammar, rhetoric, Logic; and in the process they helped youths to develop their skills in public speaking and thus their preparation for public life.

Athenian education was mainly for boys as there was no specific type of education to their mothers for moral and domestics training. So unlike in Sparta, girls were given a type of education that prepared them for their role as wives and mothers in an atmosphere of severe discipline.

2(i). John Locke (1632 - 1704) was an English Philosopher, the initiator of the enlightenment movement in England and France. John Locke was raised up in a village near Bristol and educated in Westminster School under the influence of his father. He later entered the Oxford University, there uninspiring so he busied himself with studies outside the formal curriculum, particularly science and medicine; John Locke obtained the bachelor and master's degrees in quick succession at the University. He made the following contribution to education:

2(ii). Jean-Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 - July 2, 1778) was of Swiss, French and Italian background, although born and brought up in Switzerland by his watchmaker father. He had no education many years until his father fled Geneva to Nyon and placed him in the care of a pastor. Jean-Jacques received his education mostly incidentally from the people he lived or worked with. In fact, he was a man mostly self educated, becoming a great musician, a writer, and an idealist.

He made the following contributions to education.
(Repeated Question 2014, No. 6)

3. The culture and education in Egypt were mainly preserved and controlled by the priests who formed powerful intellectual elite in the Egyptian theocracy and occupied important political positions. Subjects like humanities, science, medicine, mathematics, and geometry were taught by the priests in formal schools; skills t such fields as architecture, engineering, and sculpture outside the context of formal schooling.

Education in ancient Egypt was developed into two type of formal schools for privileged youths under the supervision of government officials and priests as follows: (a) one for scribes and the other (b) for priests' trainees. At the age of five, pupils entered the writing school and continued their studies in reading and writing until the age of 16 or 17. At the age of 13 or 14, the school boys were also given practical training in offices for which they were being prepared for. Training of priests began in temple colleges which boys entered at the age of 17. The length of training depends upon the requirements for various priestly offices. It is not clear whether or not the practical sciences constituted a part of the temple college.

The methods of teaching were rigid, and discipline was severe, the aim in most cases was to achieve Uniformity in cultural transmission - deviation from the traditional pattern of thought was a taboo. The typical methods of teaching employed were drilling and memorization.

(Repeated Question 2014, 3(a) and 2012, No. 3(c)).

(Repeated Question, 2013 No 3)

The overall development of himself and his community. Fafunwa, Babs A. (1974) Observed, "Society used to accord priority to the inculcation of Values of "Social responsibility, political participation, job orientation and spiritual and moral uprightness in the citizen". The achievements of individuals were largely determined by how well they put into practical application the value systems mentioned above.

According to Ozigi, A (1981), he said "There is the traditional form of education which has existed in our societies, as in other societies, for centuries which has taught our children, formally or informally, how to behave as members of a group (family, clan, peer, community); the cultural values norms and beliefs of societies (its tradition history, legends, music, etc); and also how to produce certain things needed for the survival of the society."

The traditional education system in Nigeria is Life-long in nature as it aims at equipping individuals with the necessary skills and attitude that would help them function effectively in the society.

Goals of Traditional system of Education in Nigeria
(Repeated Question 2014, No. 1(a) and 2013, No 2 (a))

Nature of Traditional System of Education in Nigeria.
The purpose of education in the traditional African Society was to set afoot a man with functional skills that would help him live peacefully among others and contribute his quota to [society].

====================================================================
YEAR: 2012 HISTORY OF EDUCATION PDE 701 TIME: 2 HOURS
====================================================================

General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) Explain the characteristics of the Early Educational System.
(b) Compare and contrast the education in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

2. (a) Trace origin of Athenian Education.
(b) Explain features of education in Sparta.
(c) Give four major contribution of sophists to education.

3. (a) Write a brief biography of Socrates.
(b) Explain the contributions of plato of education.
(c) Discuss the major ideas of Aristotle.

4. (a) Explain the importance of Phelps-stoke Commission Report to educational Policies in British Colonies.
(b) Explain the problems of Nigeria Education today.
(c) Provide solution to the problems of Nigeria Education.

5. (a) Examine the developmental trends in provision of primary Education.
(b) Discuss the problems in technical and vocational education.

6. (a) Explain the contribution of private Enterprise in Development of education in Nigeria.
(b) Explain the stages of learning in Islamic Education.

1(a) The early known educational system in history share the following Characteristics:
i. They taught religion and promoted the traditions of the people. For example, in ancient Egypt there were temple schools, which taught both religion and the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, architecture, etc. Education in this era was rooted in religion.
ii. Knowledge was preserved and controlled by the priests who were then the teachers. In Egypt, India, China, Mesopotamia etc the business of education was carried out mostly by the priests.
iii. Method of teaching and learning was teacher-centred, rigid and practical. Discipline in most cases was severe; the aim was to achieve Uniformity in cultural transmission.

1(b) The Egyptians developed two types of formal schools for privileged youths under the supervision of government officials and priests. One for scribes and the other for priests' trainees.

Similarly, Mesopotamia developed education quite similar to that of Egypt with regard to its purpose and training - it was practical and aimed to train scribes and priests.

As with Egypt, the priests in Mesopotamia dominated the intellectual and educational domain as well as the applied. The library formed the centre of intellectual activity which usually operated in a temple under the supervision of renowned priests which was systematically organized. The teaching methods in the two countries were practical and rigid and discipline was severe (harsh) as the aim was to achieve Uniformity in cultural transmission.

Conversely, in Egypt, the typical teaching methods employed were drilling and memorization but in Mesopotamia the teaching methods employed were memorizatory oral repetition, copying of models and individual instruction.

Furthermore, the principle of writing, reading and religion was extended to higher learning in law, Medicine and astrology in Mesopotamia.

In Mesopotamia, the education was more practical aimed at training scribes and the priests than in Egypt whose education was mainly for privileged youths and priests.

2(a) Athens was one of the ancient city state in Greece. Initially, Athens was like Sparta in its approach towards education of the citizens with a heavy orientation towards the military training. However, during the 6th century, Athens gradually renounced this type of education oriented towards the future duties of the soldiers. This did not mean that military life was totally excluded from the life of the Athenian youth. What it portrayed was that the civil aspect of life and culture while militarism was only a sport. The shift towards increasing democratization in the city was significant as many people participated in the affairs of the state and free citizens were involved in taking important decisions. This trend towards democratization meant that the Athenian culture was continually oriented towards noble life. Hence, apart from [the original aspects already noted]...

[Note: page 17 continuation cut off after "apart from"]

ii. The itinerant teachers ameliorated the study of prose and thus helped the use of rhetoric as an art of public speaking.
iii. The sophists developed the use of logic, the science of proper reasoning to the people.
iv. They engaged in the nature of virtue (arete) and the bases of morality in the history of society and the arts; in poetry, music and mathematics, and also in astronomy and the physical sciences.

3(a) Biography of Socrates (469 - 399 BC) Socrates, the celebrated Greek philosopher and moralist, was born at Athens in the year 469BC, the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor and Phaenarete, a midwife. He was educated in literature, music, and gymnastics, and later in the rhetoric and dialectics of the Sophists, the speculations of the Ionian philosophers, and the general culture of Periclean Athens. Initially Socrates followed the craft of his father. He came to concentrate on philosophy and discussions. His wife was Xanthippe, an Athenian, with whom he had three children namely, Menexenus, Lamprocles and Sophroniscus respectively.

The central idea of his philosophy was the attribute of arete usually translated as "goodness" or "Virtue" perhaps his most important contribution to western thought was his dialectic method of inquiry known as the "Socratic method" or method of "elenchus", which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and Justice.

In the year 400 B.C; an indictment was laid against Socrates with impiety and corrupting the morals of the youth of Athens and the penalty for this is death. By a majority of five or six he was adjudged guilty and sentenced to death by poison. He then drank the hemlock, and passed away (399 B.C.) with the dignity and calmness becoming his past career.

3(b) (Repeated Question, 2014, No. 3(a))

3(c) (Repeated Question, 2014, No. 3(b))

4(a) The reports of the two Phelps-stokes Committee that visited West Africa in 1920 and East and Central Africa in 1924, criticized the system of education being given to Africans. Their criticisms and recommendations undoubtedly influenced the British Government to approve the establishment of an advisory committee on native education in tropical areas to advise the secretary of state for the colonies on matters of native education and to assist him in advancing the progress of education in the British tropical Africa. The committee produced a thirteen point memorandum, which provided for the first time a sound basis for Nigeria's education policies.

The ordinance of 1926, the colonial development act of 1929 and the 1948 educational ordinance merely reechoed the provisions of the Phelp-stokes recommendations which led to the decentralization of education and got the government to be more involved in the control and supervision of education. Curriculum content became more expanded and the training of indigenous teachers pursued more vigorously. Between 1945 and 1970, Nigeria began to develop its higher reports set to examine the possibility of developing the sector were studied by the government with a view to implementing the recommendation right away in line with this the government studies the Elliot Commission reports, which was established in 1943 to examine the possibility of establishing University Colleges in Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone. This report sagged the establishment of the University College, Ibadan, which came into being in 1947.

In 1959, the government appointed another commission headed by Eric Ashby "to conduct an investigation into the Nigeria's need in the field of post secondary school certificate and higher education over the next twenty years" (Fafunwa, B.A. 1974). This was the first time in Nigeria's history that "Nigerian's, represented by the minister of education, decided to examine the higher educational structure in terms of the needs of the country.

4(b) (Repeated Question 2013, No. 3 and 2011, No. 5)

4(c) The Nigeria education system which produced world renowned scholars in the past has now become a shadow of itself. The rot in the nation's education system has reached such a deplorable proportion that if not properly addressed now; subsequent generations of Nigerians will continue to suffer its consequences.

Below Outlined solution to the problems of Nigerian education:
i. First there should be adequate funding of the education sector;
ii. Regular payment of teacher's salaries and allowances is recommended;
iii. Free and quality education for all should be embraced as provided under section 18 of the 1999 Nigerian constitution,
iv. All schools should be provided with adequate equipments and facilities for teaching and learning;
v. Frequent changes of subject syllabuses should be discouraged while teachers of all categories should be motivated (encouraged) to remain in the same school for many years so that a tradition of teaching and learning could be established in each school;
vi. Training and retraining of teachers;
vii. Control of corruption among Teachers, schools' Administrators and inspectors; etc; Government through the EFCC and ICPC, must show a determination to stamp out corruption from public life.
viii. Motivation of Teachers and those at the helm of the affairs;
ix. Government should grant special concession to Nigerian educational institutions to import books, stationeries and other educational equipments, duty-free. Also, Nigerian publishers and printing industries should be allowed to import news print and other materials needed for book production without paying any import duties.

5(a) The Ashby recommendations paved way for the development of primary education after independence. The Government of the Northern Region felt that the greatest need was to accelerate the expansion of the primary Schools. Its aim was to attain the Ashby report target of 25% of children of school age, designed a programme that was to advance the region into universal primary Education as soon as possible. At the same time infrastructure were to be laid in terms of post-primary facilities in order to ensure a balanced education development.

The Government of the Eastern and Western Regions were already enrolling a high proportion of primary school population through their universal Primary education programmes (UPE). However, due to the problem of poor quality staff and falling standards in the cost of education, the East had to scrap its own UPE and directed its attention to teacher training with a view to achieving high quality work in the schools.

In the West, the successful implementation of UPE since 1955 left them with the time to concentrate on raising the standard of teaching in schools.

5(b) Problems in Technical and Vocational Education in Nigeria:

i. Corruption
Corruption is the main reason why all good initiatives fall in Nigeria. The country is ranked top among the most corrupt nations of the universe. Corruption continues to degrade our national values, destroy good initiatives and makes progress almost [impossible]. Until a drastic blow is dealt to corruption in the public and private sectors, nothing of great national value should be expected in Nigeria.

Corruption and poor funding have denied many institutions in Nigeria the opportunity to grow and match their counterparts in other parts of the world. To quote Oharisi (2007), "Technical and vocational education is capital intensive". The lack of funds limits the amount of technical and industrial exposure that trainees can acquire in the course of learning.

ii. Faulty Education System and Government Policies
The Nigerian education system had and is still witnessing changes in education system. There have been the 8-5-2-3 system, the 6-5-2-3 system, the 6-3-3-4 and now 9-3-4 systems. Indeed, policy makers appear to be confused and their interest in the questionable. All these changes including distorted academic calendars have had negative effects on the delivery of technical and vocational education over the years.

iii. Lack of Adequate Motivation
Technical and Vocational college teachers are subjected to deplorable working conditions. Hardly are they found in furnished offices, instead they are put in large staff rooms, at times with students' type of desks and chairs, whereas their counterparts in other sectors could have executive air-conditioned offices, private secretary or even messengers, etc; these help to boost their ego as they are looked upon as being successful. Therefore, if education at the technical and Vocational college level will be restored to acceptable level, hygiene-motivator principles must guide getting teachers to have satisfaction from their job. (Ariwerikumwa, 1986).

iv. Poor Professional, Personal and Public Image
While the general attitudes of the public toward technical education and technical/vocational teachers have been found to be negative, the teachers themselves act and talk that way instead of re-orienting and correcting the misconceptions that the public have about technical and Vocational education. The general public must be made to recognize that technical and vocational teachers are the backbone of any nation for technological development.

v. Inadequate Supply of Technical Workshop
Most technical and vocational colleges cannot boast of adequate functional workshops, even when the teachers may be ready to teach the students, in spite of poor remuneration. There are some cases where technical equipment were supplied but no workshop to install the equipment. This certainly led to the frustration of teachers.

vi. Lack of Well-Articulated In-services Education Programme for Technical Teachers
It has been observed that some of the technical/vocational college teachers do not have any teaching qualification and no provision has been made for them by the employers in this area to serve as incentives for these teachers. They should be encouraged to attend some vocational teacher education programme during long vacations to equip them as professional teachers and not as cheaters.

vii. Lack of Well Equipped Library for Research work/Project
Most technical and vocational institutions do not have well equipped libraries for teachers and students to carry out some research work/projects successfully, because the libraries are not stocked with up-to-date textbooks and periodicals in their area of specialization. Where the textbooks are available locally, the teachers could not afford them because of meager salaries. Therefore, the technical and vocational teachers may not be motivated to embark on any project that will be useful to the society.

viii. Inadequate Supply of Instructional Materials
Instructional Materials and consumables in technical and vocational colleges are very expensive and the federal and state government have not been providing funds to address this critical area. All we are getting is just lip service to these institutions. Even when the teachers are ready to improvise instructional materials, the little amount of fund needed could still not be received from the college authorities.

6(a) In the area of primary schools, private enterprise did not feature much; this was left solely in the hands of the voluntary agencies and government. Private enterprise helped the government by establishing and running some secondary schools. Most of these private schools were not grant-aided from public funds and so turned to commercial and vocational subjects which were established after independence as they supplied the secretarial staff which enabled the Nigerian bureaucracy to stand when the colonial staff left in 1960. The period 1931-1959 witnessed a lot of local community participation at spreading science education in Nigeria as individuals, groups and communities set out to establish more secondary schools in the country.

Prominent Nigerians who studied abroad like Professor Oyerinde, Professor Eyo Ita, N.D., Chief Daniel Henshaw, Rev. O. Offiong and Alvan Ikoku saw the need for technical/vocational education. They formed a National Education Movement and later opened Secondary Schools that were somehow technically oriented. The schools emphasized the training in such trades as printing, carpentry, tailoring and bakery (Eke, 1998). Many of such schools were opened in Lagos, Calabar, Ibadan, Aba, Port-Harcourt, Ikot-Ekpene and Arochukwu. Some of the schools founded by different categories of Nigerians according to Eke (1998) include the following:

Some Schools Established by the Elite Group
i. Entonna High school, established in 1932 by Rev. Patts-Johnson, I.R.,
ii. Aggrey Memorial College, established in 1933 by Alvan Ikoku.

Some Schools Established by None-Elite Nigerians
i. Christ High School, Lagos, established in 1934;
ii. New African College, Onitsha, established in 1938;
iii. African College, Onitsha, established in 1943;
iv. Lisabi Grammar School, Abeokuta, established in 1943.

Some Schools Established by Communities
i. Ibibio State College, Ikot-Ekpene established in 1949 by the Ibibios;
ii. Urhobo College, Effurum, established in 1949 by the Urhobos;
iii. Egbado College, Ilaro, established in 1950 by the Egbados

In addition to the contribution of the private enterprise in the formal system, there are hundreds of artisans spread throughout the country who were self-employed and who train apprentices in their respective trade. Many girls acquired skills in needed work, sewing, catering and domestic science in this way. Many road-side mechanics acquired their skills, which are reasonably high in a few cases, from self-employed artisans.

6(b) (Repeated Question, 2010, No. 6; 2013, No. 3)

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YEAR: 2013 HISTORY OF EDUCATION PDE 701 TIME: 2 HOURS
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General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) What do you understand by the concept "History"? (12 1/2 Marks)
(b) State five (5) reasons why history of education should be studied in teacher's education programme in Nigeria. (12 1/2 Marks)

2. (a) Examine the aims of traditional education in Nigeria. (12 1/2 marks)
(b) Explain the traditional education methods according to Babs Fafunwa (1977) (12 1/2 marks)

3. Discuss any five (5) obstacles militating against the full implementation of the National Policy on Education in Nigeria. (25 Marks)

4. Examine the ways in which Nigeria's education system drew inspirations from the works of:
a. Frobel; (8 Marks)
b. Johann Hanrich Pestalozzi; and (8 marks)
c. John Dewey (8+1 Marks)

5. Discuss the teaching steps as advocated by John Herbert (25 Marks)

6. Enumerate and discuss the stages of learning in Islamic Education (25 Marks)

1(a) History as an academic discipline is an account of what actually happened in the past which has a link to what is happening at present and can help in planning or projecting for the future. In other words history deals with the past, the present and the future. In working back to the past, history likes to dig to the very origin, to the earliest period that is relevant to the issue at hand.

Furthermore, History is as old as the creation of man, historical accounts are presented in sequential, coherent, consistent and systematic order. Logical presentation is an important ingredient of history; bias and prejudice are not allowed or encouraged.

History, therefore [records] persons, places, events of the past for the present and future generation (Amaele, 2003). There are two main sources of history, primary and secondary sources respectively.

1(b)
i. The study of history of education helps to widen the scope and knowledge of the teacher and makes him more comfortable and competent in his class;
ii. It guides the teacher to proffer some positive solution to our present day education systems;
iii. It helps the teacher to understand some major trends and development in our education system;
iv. Knowledge of history of education gives the teacher the opportunity of knowing our past mistakes in our education with a view to making necessary amends;
v. It gives us the opportunity to understand the background of the child, which helps him in guiding the future of the child.

2(a) (Repeated Question 2014, No. 1(a); 2010 No. 5)

2(b) The traditional education methods according to Fafunwa, Babs (1977) include the following:
i. Indoctrination: For instance, good virtues and values are handed down to the children through different means possible. They are dogmas that cannot be compromised or questioned;
ii. Imitation: Children learn the skills and norms by copying what they see their elders do;
iii. Training: Child receives informal training to acquire skills, attitudes and values that will make them fit to live in the society is equally through the apprenticeship system;
iv. Initiation: After receiving training, children are introduced to certain modes of behaviour that are considered acceptable by the group they belong to. This is usually marked by fanfare and ceremony at an appointed time in the community cultural rites and practices are usually observed during initiation.

From the above mentioned traditional teaching methods, emphasis is laid on practical knowledge, skills and character building of the child.

i. The Problem of corruption
It is obvious that corruption is a major obstacle militating against the full implementation of the National Policy on Education in our country. Corruption is a menace that has crept into all activities and touches all sectors of the economy including education. It is a major setback to the realization of the goals of the national policy in which some officials will divert or make useless, the allocations made to the sector. In the end the money appropriated for education will not be spent for the purpose it was budgeted.

ii. Explosion in Population
The Population of Nigeria has been witnessing very rapid rates of growth. In 1963, the population of the country was put at 55.670 million people. However, the provisional census (2006) for Nigeria put the size of the country's population at 140 million people. The rapid growth of the population [affects the education] sector. Structurally, Nigeria's population is more in favour of young people. Due to the large number of school age population more education burden is placed on society in terms of providing teaching and learning inputs (human, material and time).

Inability to cope with the explosion of learners in our school system has affected effective implementation of the National Policy in Education in Nigeria.

iii. Depressing Economy
Many educationists have continued to question the sincerity of government in its determination to forge the country's education system ahead, viewing from the continued decrease in government budgetary allocation to the sector over the years as a result of the nation's depressing economy.

Nigerian economy is in serious distress. The economy that was booming is now a shadow of its former self. The mono-oil based resource has been "dethroned" in Nigeria worsened by the neglect of other sectors of the economy like agriculture (Obanyan, 2002). The galloping inflation trend in Nigeria eats up the little funds for education. With the resultant rise in the cost of education, mobilization strategies for more funds have not proved very impressive and successful, hence the growing mismatch between education and economy, thus making effective full implementation of the National Policy on Education inhibited.

iv. Maintenance and Management Problem
It is equally disheartening to observe that capital projects in the education sector are not being given immediate attention. There are no visible plans to expand the already overstretched facilities in all the levels of education, well instead much is now laid on the development of roads, rural electrification, polio eradication and so on. These are [not] worthless. Rather they should be considered secondary to the development of education, which is primarily concerned with the development of all the facilities of man, his attitudes and skills. Of what significance is life when illiteracy, hunger, disease and general under development are the ugly faces of our lives?

Furthermore, class norms, equipment, furniture and other instructional materials are very inadequate to promote effective teaching and learning. There is over utilization of physical facilities, yet they are poorly maintained.

v. Politics
Since political independence, education in Nigeria has been caught in the web of military and partisan politics. Agentha (1992) asserted that military interventions are common, but in Nigeria, whether it is during civilian or military regime, there is always a marked difference between the federal and state policies and practices in education. This has affected effective implementation of the National Policy on Education. Technocracy of planning education only operates within the political ideological framework of the government in power without any due regard to the socio-economic realities of the day. It is all about politics.

4(a) Friedrich Wilhelm August Frobel (April 21, 1782 - June 21, 1852) was a German psychologist and educationist. His major contribution to education was his theory on the importance of play and self-activity in early childhood. Frobel founded the Kindergarten movement. He established his own school on sound psychological basis, the Universal German Education Institute at Griesheim in 1816.

His major written work was "The Education of man", a work that stood him out as a person opposed to reforms, although it has a number of major ideas. Frobel opened another school for orphans in Switzerland along with a section for teacher training courses. It was his pioneering work later in Keilchau where he opened the first Kindergarten for which he is noted today. He called it Kindergarten, i.e, garden of children, meaning one which would be like a beautiful garden, and thus lovely for children; one where children would be able to grow up much like flowers in a garden would grow. Because of the success of this experiment, other similar kindergartens soon started and flourished till today.

4(b) Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 - February 17, 1827) was a Swiss reformer whose theories laid much of the foundation of modern elementary education.
He contributed much towards the development of audio-visual education. He was one of those early educators who believed that pictures, demonstrations and other audio-visual means are effective tools for teaching and who advocated the use of sensory materials to supplement teaching.

Pestalozzi established an orphanage in 1774 in which young ones were trained to become self-sufficient by mastering rudiments of agriculture and trading; he later founded a boarding school which was attended by pupils from all over Europe;

He wrote books where he put down his ideas; "How Gertrude Teaches Her children" and "Leonard and Gertrude". These two books were addressed to sound methods of teaching.

Pestalozzi emphasized that education must be significantly raised in all its facets to become a science that is to be built on and proceeds from the deepest knowledge of human nature. By this he meant that the process of teaching and learning should be taken very seriously and studied thoroughly and conscientiously.

He created a new methodology for elementary education which was introduced into teacher education both in Europe and America and stimulated teaching and learning theory and practice to a very great extent.

4(c) John Dewey (Oct. 20, 1859 - June 1, 1952) was an American psychologist, philosopher, educator, social critic and political activist. For his contributions on education, he was a prolific writer with over 500 Journals, articles and numerous books, the most outstanding being "Democracy and Education" (1916). In 1896, he established his famous laboratory school where he researched and experienced new ideas and methods.

He found out that individuals had more intimate contact with the natural environment and this made learning easier and meaningful. In line with this, John Dewey emphasized that if the school is to play any useful social function, it must encourage such contact with the natural environment as well as promote a sense of community.

Dewey improved upon the philosophy of pragmatism with ideas gained from Charles Peirce and William James. He realized that to survive in a world of pressing problems such as the one he grew up in, one needed to be resourceful, energetic and practical.

Furthermore, Dewey believed that the education process has two sides, the psychological and the social, which can neither be ignored. He maintained that because learning depends on the psychological nature of the child, teachers must explore the child's nature, needs and interests in teaching. Socially, he held that the school is not an institution which is separate from the outer society, that whatever is taught in schools must draw from and illuminate experience which learners have at home.

John Dewey established the greatest influence in education in his pedagogy. He criticized formal methods which begin with definitions and in which teacher present materials from their points of view. In his opinion education can only be conceived as the constant reconstruction of experience rather as a process of transmission or of getting already synthesized knowledge; in this way, previous knowledge is only useful as a tool in reconstructing experience or in overcoming a present problem.

5. The five teaching steps as advocated by Johann Friedrich Herbert (4 May, 1776 - August 14, 1841)
i. Preparation
ii. Presentation
iii. Association
iv. Generalization
v. Application

i. Preparation: This is a process of relating new materials (activities) to be learned to relevant past (previous) idea as so as to give the pupil a vital interest in the topic.

ii. Presentation: Presentation is a process of presenting new material by means of concrete (tangible) objects or actual experience.

iii. Association: John Herbert defines it as the thorough assimilation of the new idea through comparison with earlier held ideas and consideration of their similarities and differences in order to implant the new idea in the mind.

iv. Generalization: This is a procedure especially important to the instruction of adolescents and which is designed to develop the mind, the logic and the level of insight and the concrete.

v. Application: This is the process of using acquired knowledge not in a purely utilitarian way, but in a way that every learned idea becomes a part of the functional mind and for every day purposes. This step will be possible only if the student immediately applies the new idea, making it his own.

6. The stages of learning Islamic Education according to Dambo (1994) are
i. Nursery or Early childhood stage (Makarantar Yara)
ii. The Elementary stage (Tittibiri), and
iii. Adult Education stage — (Secondary stage / University stage)

i. Nursery or Early Childhood Stage (Makarantar Yara)
This stage consists of children of tender age of say between three to five who normally follow their brothers and sisters to school. The children are grouped together in one corner of the circle and instructed orally to recite and commit to memory shorter chapters (Surahs) of the Qur'an and other Islamic rituals of purification, ablution, prayer and ethics.

The instructional technique at this stage is such that the teacher recites the shorter Surahs to the pupils and the pupils in turn repeat after him. This routine is repeated several times until the teacher is fully convinced that his pupils have mastered the correct pronunciation. The pupils are then allowed to retire and continue reciting these ayats on their own until they have been thoroughly memorized before proceeding to the next set of ayats. According to Babs Fafunwa, (1974) "the pupils seem to enjoy reciting these verses (ayats) to themselves in their homes and at play"; in this way the pupils progress in their studies before entering the next stage of learning.

ii. The Elementary Stage (Tittibiri)
It consists of pupils of about five to fourteen years old who are introduced to Arabic alphabets just as children in the formal type of education are introduced to A, B, C and D. They learn the consonants (Babbaku) which are twenty-eight in number without the vowels first, and after they learn each of the consonants with vowels (wasulla) called farfaru which are indispensable tools that ensure fluency in the proper pronunciation of Arabic letters from its roots and proficiency in word articulation pertinent in realizing and appreciating the correct interpretation of the Qur'an, its melody and unique features.

This stage is the most primary to the educational progress of pupils later in life and that is why Muslim parents make sure that their children are well grounded with the requirements of this stage. After the pupils have learnt these, the teacher will start writing on their wooden board, the slate (allo), short verses and Surahs for them to learn and commit to memory. As the pupil progresses in this stage, he is gradually introduced to the art of writing to develop his writing skills and after writing, he now goes to the Mallam to read the written portion in a process called Darsu (Biyawa).

This art continues until the process of writing is perfected after which the pupil is now allowed by the Mallam to be reading pages of the Qur'an directly. The students are made to observe some of the rules of Tajwid (the science of recitation of the Holy Qur'an) unconsciously, until he completes learning the whole Qur'an. It is apposite to note that not all take on some trade to earn a living, and others, especially girls would be withdrawn by their parents for marriage.

Further instructions on Islamic rituals are given and in most cases, the teacher demonstrates how these rituals are performed. Thus, direct acquisition of the rites of ablution, tayammum, prayer and other rituals are issued at this stage although much of it are to be learnt in the next stage.

iii. Adult Education Stage
In this stage according to Fafunwa, Babs A. (1974) "The pupils are mostly adolescents who in most cases have completed the reading of Al-Qur'an at least once and as well know some basic tenets of Islam". The curriculum at this stage is structured and diversified to reflect areas students wish to specialize in. Firstly, he starts learning what may be called general studies in which the meaning of what he learnt and committed to memory before is taught to him in the process called Tarjama and exegesis (Tafsir). The pupils are introduced to the tradition of the prophet (S.A.W) called Hadith which they learnt during their elementary level of studies. Furthermore, other courses they learnt include Arabic grammar and its components, i.e as-sarf (grammatical inflexions), an-nahw (syntax), al-mantiq (logic), al-mani wal bayan (rhetoric and versification) and ishiriniyat (poetry). Other are fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence), al-aqaid (theology), ilmulusul (rules and principles of the interpretation of laws), al-jabr wal muqabalah (algebra) and al hisab were taught equally.

The student spends much of his time learning these subjects from different teachers who teach the different subjects in which the student chooses a subject for specialization. He later proceeds to a University of international repute to continue with his studies there such as universities of al-Az'har, Timbuktu, Sankore and Jenne which serve as international centers of learning.

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YEAR: 2014 HISTORY OF EDUCATION PDE 701 TIME: 2 HOURS
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General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) Identify and discuss any five (5) aims of traditional education in Nigeria (15 marks)
(b) Explain any five (5) merits and demerit each of traditional education in Nigeria (10 Marks)

2. (a) Identify five (5) problems that affected the post-independence development of secondary education in Nigeria (10 marks)
(b) Discuss five (5) steps taking by government to alleviate the problems. (15 Marks)

3. Discuss any four (4) contributions of each of the following to education
a. Aristotle (b) Plato (c) Vittorino (25 Marks)

4. (a) Examine five (5) roles of the missionaries in the introduction of Western education in Nigeria. (15 Marks)
(b) Identify and discuss five weaknesses of education offered by the missionaries (10 Marks)

5. Discuss the contributions of any five (5) Muslim scholars to education. (25 Marks)

6. Discuss any five (5) contributions each of Jean Jacque Rousseau and John Locke in education. (25 Marks).

[Note: No answer sheets/key were included for the 2014 paper in the source document — only the question paper itself was scanned. The next document section (page 58 onward) begins Developmental Psychology PDE 702 (2010), which was not included in the pages uploaded.]

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END OF EXTRACTED CONTENT — HISTORY OF EDUCATION PDE 701 (2010–2014)
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NOTE ON THIS EXTRACTION:
This file contains the full text of the "History of Education PDE 701" section (Years 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014) exactly as scanned in the uploaded PDF (pages 1-42 of the source document). The remaining sections listed in the Table of Contents (Developmental Psychology PDE 702, General Methods PDE 703, Curriculum Design PDE 704, Measurement and Evaluation PDE 705, Psychology of Education PDE 706, Philosophy of Education PDE 707, Research Methods PDE 708, Sociology of Education PDE 709, Statistical Methods PDE 710, Micro Teaching PDE 711, Guidance and Counseling PDE 712) were NOT included in the uploaded file — only the cover page, table of contents, and the PDE 701 (History of Education) section were provided. If you have the additional pages, upload them and I can extract those too.

A few words in the original scan were faint/illegible due to image quality (e.g., minor OCR gaps marked with [brackets] where context was inferred); these have been noted rather than guessed wholesale.

(Repeated Question 2013, No. 3(a)).

1(b) The major functions of maturation are:
(i) Phylogenetic functions; and
(ii) Ontogenetic functions.

(i) Phylogenetic Functions:
These are functions which are common to all members of a species. These include crawling, creeping, sitting, jumping, walking, etc.
Experience is not necessary to these functions as they are time, age and physical and mental maturity dependent. Phylogency is the study of evolution.

(ii) Ontogenetic Functions:
These depend on experience; they are functions common to individuals. Some of these functions are swimming, climbing, pointing, speed, etc. Here, without experience or training, development cannot take place.

It should be noted that no heredity tendency can mature fully without environment support, i.e environment influence development.

The general principles of development are:
(i) Cephalocaudal Growth Patterns;
(ii) Proximodistal Growth Patterns;
(iii) The Principle of Differentiation (Orthogenetic principle);
(iv) Principles of Complexity of Growth;
(v) Modifiability of Rates and Pattern of Growth;
(vi) The Principles of Asynchronous Growth or Split Growth;
(vii) Principle of Discontinuity of Growth;
(viii) Structure Generally Precedes Function; and
(ix) Principle of Uniqueness of Individuals.

(i) Cephalocaudal Growth Patterns
This principle states that development spread over the body from head to foot (top to bottom). This means that improvement in structures and functions com first in the head area, then in the trunk and leg region. The organs in the area of the head develop first and mature first before the organs in other areas.
Hence, the child is first able to see, hear sound and jingles before using his hands and legs in a meaningful way.

(ii) Proximodistal Growth Pattern
This principle describes the direction of development. It states that development proceeds from the central axis of the body towards the extremities, i.e. development proceeds from the central axis of the body to outward.

For example, in the foetus, the head and the trunk are well development before the rudimentary limb buds appear. The arm buds gradually appear and develop into the hands and lastly fingers before his hands and fingers respectively and can use the later as a unit before he can control the movements of his fingers.

(iii) The Principles of Differentiation (Orthogenetic Principle)
The principle does not involve the direction of development; instead it holds that development proceeds from simple to complex, from homogenous to heterogeneous and from general to specific.

At conception, the mother egg-cell and the sperm from the father fuse to form a zygote which starts to divide itself into 2 then 4 to 8 up to billions of cells that form a body.
In both mental and motor responses, general activities always precede specific activities. In any post natal life, the infants can move his whole body but incapable of specific responses.

(iv) Principle of Complexity of Growth
Growth is an extremely complex process, it has different collective aspects. It is complex because what happens to one area affects other areas. The effect of this is that it is not easy to specify casual relationship since there can be other causes in other areas, i.e. causes for growth retardation in a child may be traced to reasons other than malnutrition. It may be because of emotional stress, illness, social isolation or physical harm.

(v) Modification of Rates and Patterns
The view of this principle is that growth is natural but the rate and pattern of growth can be modified by various factors and techniques. Some of these factors are:
(a) Nutrition and drug taken by the mother;
(b) Environmental stimulation;
(c) Opportunity to learn;
(d) Illness and disease;
(e) Genetic aspect (Mutational changes);
The presence of absence of some of these faiths can retard the rate and pattern of growth.

(vi) Structure Generally Precedes Function
All physical components of the body including the brain usually mature and get ready before they can be functional. Before any organ can be used by the child, such an organ must be physically and physiologically ready before they can perform development tasks.

(vii) Principle of Uniqueness of Individuals
The principle states that every individual is unique, that they are no two people that are exactly alike. Every child's pattern and rate of growth is peculiar to him or her. We may say that an average age for a child to walk is twelve months, yet some children walk later or earlier than this.

Among twins of the same background, there are still some obvious differences. One may be more active than the other, some children like being quiet; others respond to stimuli gradually and bet others respond very fast. This gives rise to individuality in the classroom. Some children are more active and very vocal while others are quiet and calm.

(viii) The Principle of Asynchronous Growth or Split Growth
The principle states that the changes that occur in the body proportion are due to Asynchronous or split growth. This means that the different parts of the body have their own period of rapid and slow growth and that each reaches its own mature sixe at its own time. Growth in all parts of the body is however continuous and concurrent, for eg. A child's brain does not stop growing while his muscles are growing.

Asynchronous growth is particularly obvious when different parts of the body are compared, eg. the muscles, bones, lungs and the genitals increase approximately twenty (20) times during the growth years, while the eyes and the brain which are relatively more developed at birth increase much less. The eye balls complete its growth during the first five years and the brain also completes its growth during the first 10 years but the heart and some other internal organs require more than twenty years to complete its growth.
Though growth and development usually proceed in an orderly sequence, the rate of growth often differs from one organs and system to the other and from one period to another.

(ix) Principle of Discontinuity of Growth:
The principle asserts that the rate of growth changes at different periods. There are periods if acceleration and decelerations of growth.
During the first nine months in the womb the growth is very fast the child develops from a microscopically small sperm cell to an infant of about 3kg mass. The growth is mainly physiological and consists of all bodily structures.

There are four stages of growth comprising two rapid and two slow stages VIZ:
(a) from birth – two (2) years = Rapid growth
(b) from two (2) years – puberty = Slow growth
(c) puberty – sixteen (16) years = Rapid growth
(d) sixteen (16) years – maturity = Growth is slow

Factors that affect proper development of a child are:

(i) Hereditary Factors (Nature)
This includes all the genetic make-up or traits/characteristics inherited by the child from the parents which affect the development of the child. Such characteristics include physical features, intelligence, disorders, blood type, etc.

(ii) Environmental Factors (Nurture)
This include all factors influencing the development of an individual right from the time of conception. It includes such factors as diet, health of the mother when the child is in the womb, home influences, school, church and neighborhood influences, effects of climates, geographical location and all things that stimulates the sense.

(iii) Emotional Factor
The separation of the body from his parents during infancy and early childhood can result to retardation of growth.

(Repeat Question, 2014, No 3(b))
Note: Choose any five answers

(Repeated Question, 2012, No 6)

The relevance of Piaget's theory of cognitive development to teaching and learning include any of the following:

(i) Activity and Cognitive Growth
A major educational implication of cognitive development is that growth in any stage depends in activity. That development of brain power is not fixed at birth, but is a function of appropriate activity during any particular stage which produces cognitive growth.

It pertinent for a teacher of student at this stage of realizes that not all children actually reach the cognitive development level at the sometime as others. Thus, he should incorporate varied teaching methods (concrete representations and abstract ideas) in his lessons.

Games, such as monopoly could be used in teaching such students to stimulate abstract thinking among them. This can be achieved by asking the right questions relations to the general concept being taught. In a similar manner, viewing films and movies and participating in arts forms like painting, drama, dance and music, could also greatly stimulate the young and adolescents to mediate on more abstract terms.

(ii) Curriculum and Cognitive Development
According to Jean Piaget, curriculum should not take cognitive development for granted but should provide specific educational experiences based on children's developmental levels and ability. This is very vital at the formal operational stage. Simply because they have reached formal logical thought processes does not mean they can automatically think logically. Teachers should employ and encouraged problem solving based on logical scientific methodology and where possible with models that will help to conceptualize the problem.

(iii) Learning Materials
Jean Piaget's theory tells us that since children have developed full formal pattern of thinking, they are able to attain logical rational abstract strategies, symbolic meaning and metaphors. Stories with morals can be generalized; stimulations and games can be presented and understood, for example, in monopoly same.

Teachers should all times examine curriculum materials. If it is clearly above the ability, the teachers should revise the lessons and use materials that they can fathom rather than assume that all the students are capable of understanding them. Failure day by day will make them lose interest completely in the subject, like mathematics. Teachers should provide experiences and activities that stimulate thinking.

6(a) The stages can be divided into five (5) namely:
(i) Neonatal stage - Birth to four (4) weeks
(ii) Infancy stage - 4 weeks to two (2) years
(iii) Pre-school period - Two (2) to six (6) years
(iv) Middle Childhood period - Six (6) to nine (9) years to puberty (this stage ushers in adolescent period)

(i) Neonatal Stage (Birth to four weeks)
Life begins at birth but biologically, it begins at conception. The newly born baby is referred to as neonate during the first four (4) weeks. This stage starts immediately after delivering. The neonatal period is the transitional time form intrauterine to independent existence; it is possibly the most tenuous in a human's lifetime. The skeletal system of the neonate is not totally developed and consequently many of the bones are soft and pliable.

The neonate also maintains physiological reactivity to sound intensity, as indicated by increased heart rate and motor activity, as well as an orienting reflex in which the baby turns in the direction of the sound stimulus. The other senses of olfaction, taste and tactile sensitivity also are intact (Puckett and Black, 2004).

(ii) Infancy Stage (Four Weeks to Two (2) Years)
There is a rapid physiological growth at this state. The baby eats and sleeps mostly during the first four months.

At this stage, there is head, muscular control of the body. By the first year, language acquisition has begun. According the Piaget, the child is a sensory motor stage. Children at this stage use their sensory and motor capacities to make sense of the world. Initially, children at this period don't mentally represent objects. For them, out of the sight is out of mind. However later in the stage they keep things in memory learn to imitate.

(iii) Pre – School Period (Two to Six Years)
Between two to six years, a normal child had rapid acquisition of language. By the end of this stage the child should have started school. Most cognitive activities are dominated by perception. The child at this stage need to be helped to adjust to school. Secondly, the child should be assisted to relate with others and to share. Most children do not like to share their things, for example, toys, with others.

Children should be encouraged to imbibe good behaviour patterns and assisted to overcome maladjusted behaviour. At this stage, counselors can assist in identifying learning disabilities in the children an also identify special gifts or talents.

(iv) Middle Childhood Stage (Six to Nine Years):
At this period, children are at school. They are full of physical energy. They enjoy learning Piaget is referred to as concrete operational stages. It is characterized by the ability to think logically about concrete objects. The thinking at this stage is still tied to available experience. Counseling intervention at this stage requires establishing the child properly at school, enhancing group activities. Other areas include emotions. The child at this age has outbursts of emotions, which are often violet and short lived.

(v) Pre – Adolescence Period (Nine Years to Puberty):
At this stage, the child is now in a stage of greater emotional stability and less sensitive to blame and abuse as the used to be. Another area is peer influencing, the child enjoy the company of friends of their own sex at this stage. The child also trusts the adults and teachers and obeys their instructions. This stage is delicate because the foundation for deviant behaviour to laid at this stage. Thus teachers should assist to identify maladaptive behaivour and help to modify such behaviour. Students should also be assisted to cope with disabilities if they and cultivate right attitudes and values.

At this stage, the child has fears and anxiety especially of the dark, crawly objects and probably height. Counseling interventions should focus on reducing fear.

Another marked change in the child at this period is the development of their instinct and curiosity, the child also develops a sense of reality. The child should be helped to prepare for secondary school. All fables and fears about secondary school should be dispersed.

6(b) The psychoanalytic theory according to Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) asserts that the mind is composed of three parts each with a different function, namely:
(i) Id (The Selfish Boast);
(ii) Ego (The Executive of Personality);
(iii) The superego.

(i) Id (The Selfish Boast):
Id is refers to the biological component of the personality. The I d is composed primarily of two sets of instincts, life instincts (Eros – love and self – preservation) and death instincts (Thenatos - death, hate, aggression or destruction)

The life instincts, term Libido, give rise to motives that sustain and promote life such as hunger, self – protection and sexual desire. The id which is the oldest of the personality system is primitive, raw, animalistic, unorganized, obey no rules, shameless, knows no laws and remain basic to the individual throughout life. It operates on the pleasure and avoids pain, regardless of how harmful it might be to others. The Id have no conception of reality and attempts to satisfy its needs using primary process-thinking, primary process satisfies motives through imagination rather than in reality. Albeit, interactions with parents and the real world assist in converting the Id into two other parts of the mind in order to cope effectively with the world.

(ii) The Ego (The Executive of Personality):
The ego is the reality principle which tries to suppress some of the unethical desires of the of Id in accordance with the demands of the environment. At birth, the ego does not exist, but as conscious awareness progress in the growth of a human being, the ego begins to be identifies as an unchanging improvement of the personality structure. The ego determines immediate wish of the Id and in some cases this brings some discomfort of the individual (Nwadinigwe and Makinde (1997). It is the centre of intelligence and logical thinking and formulates plans of action for satisfactory needs. The ego motives are based on self interest, sell, striving for status, superiority achievement and power.

The ego is the executive of the personality in that it uses cognitive abilities to manage the control the Id and balance its desire against the restriction of reality and the superego.

(iii) The Superego:
The Id and Ego have no morals. Restrictions are placed on the actions of Id and ego when superego develops. The superego performs the judicial function of the personality through the ideal principle. Parents are the main agents for creating superego as the system of values, norms, ethics and attitudes are transferred to the children through them. Parental punishment creates the set of moral inhibitions known as the conscious where as their rewards set up a standard of perfect conduct in the superego called the Ego Ideal.

Most people do not steal, murder and rape not because we do not want to or because our egos could not find relatively safe ways to do so but because their superego hold these desires in check.

Often ego may not find a way to satisfy the motive of Id and so a substitute is found. The process of substitute is Displacement. A socially harmful goal may be substituted with a socially desirable goal i.e. aggressiveness with sporting activities.

Another process that allows individuals operate in socially acceptable ways without friction is identification. Individuals identify role models in the society and pattern their behaviours after these models. Identification is a key step in developing the superego.

YEAR: 2011 - DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY PDE 702
TIME: 2 HOURS
================================================================

General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) Define the concepts of growth and development?
(b) Identify the relationship between growth and maturation?
(c) Discuss three principles of growth and development?

2. (a) List and explain the areas on which the environment affects learning?
(b) Enumerate and explain any five (5) areas in which children often differ.

3. (a) What do you understand by the concept "Pre – natal Development?
(b) Explain any two (2) factors that affect pre – natal development?
(c) Explain how identical twins or monozygotic twins are developed?

4. Examine the significance of Eric Erikson's psychosocial theory to adolescent's identity formation.

5. (a) Write short notes on the following with regards to physical development in adulthood.
(i) Visual acuity
(ii) Sense of taste
(iii) Reaction time
(b) As a teacher, suggest two ways in which you can improve the mental characteristics of yours adolescent students.

6. (a) Explain the crisis period in adolescent?
(b) List and explain its implications to learning?

(Repeated Question, 2012, No. 1)

2(a) Areas on which the environments affect learning include:
(i) Socio – economic conditions;
(ii) Government presence;
(iii) Background parents;
(iv) Cultural factors;
(v) Presence of Mass Media and Information Technology.

(i) Socio - Economic Conditions
The income earning power tends to be higher in the urban areas than in rural areas. There seem to be better conditions and opportunities for income generation in the urban areas than in the rural area. This is because of wide variety areas. This is because of wide variety and lucrative jobs and business that exist in urban centres.

There are better infrastructural facilities in urban areas than in rural areas than in rural areas. In urban centres, there are good network or roads, power and water supply, telecommunications, amenities such as schools, libraries, hospitals, play grounds, sporting and recreational facilities, etc.

(ii) Government Presence
In the urban areas, there is higher government presence than in rural centres. This nearness to the seat of government means that urban schools are likely to be better provided for and supervised. The implementation of educational policies is likely to begin in urban centres before getting to the rural areas. For example, supply of books, teachers, instructional materials, etc are likely to be in favour of urban centres /areas.

(iii) Background of Parents
The urban parents are likely to be more educated, more enlightened and know the value of education that their rural counterparts. Their perceptions may also differ. These differences will have impact on the learning achievement and ability of the public.

(iv) Cultural Factor
Closely related to the above is the fact that the cultural factors are likely to play the rural child than the urban child. The rural child is likely to have a different perception, beliefs system, local knowledge and prejudices (eg. sex roles), than the urban child who is likely to be more cosmopolitan (more experienced). This has implications for learning ability and achievement.

(v) Presence of Mass Media and Information Technology
In the urban areas, there is high presence of mass media and telecommunication facilities. There is ready access to information and communication technology especially the radio, television, computer and the internet. The urban child is in a position to connect to the global village. He has access to a wide variety and plenty of education resource. The rural child lacks this access and therefore the ability to benefit from such opportunities. There is no doubt that his ready access and availability of the mass media and computer technology places the urban child at learning advantage.

2(b) Five (5) areas in which children often differ are:
(i) Difference in Physique and Sex;
(ii) Difference in Age and Rate of Maturity;
(iii) Difference in Health;
(iv) Difference in Intelligence;
(v) Difference in Character.

Note: See explanation on these differences where children often differ is on 2013, No 4 (a).

3(a) Pre-natal or antenatal development is the process in which a human embryo or foetus gestates during pregnancy, from fertilization until birth. Often, the terms foetal development or embryology are used in a similar sense.

3(b) (Repeated Question, 2014, No 3(b)).
Note: Choose any two answers and explain on it as indicated.

When one egg cell (ovum) is fertilized by one sperm, a zygote is formed. This zygote may now divide in to (meiosis) and each half will develop into a separate embryo. These two embryos originating from the same or monozygotic twins. Usually, identical twins are the same sex and always have the same hereditary potentialities which may persist throughout life.

Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of personality development stress that any psychological phenomenon must be understood in terms of the interplay of biological behavioural, experimental and social factors.

According to Erik Erikson's theory, adolescents within 12 to 18 years are characterized by seeking for the attainment of independence and becoming more concerned about what they would become in future. This stage is a period of intense biological, physical, emotional and intellectual transformation among adolescents. Their main goal in life is the development of identify occurring from "confidence of sameness and continuity".
The major threats are the confusion of roles particularly about sexual and occupational identify.

Teachers should help adolescents integrate their roles in different situations so as to experience continuity in their perception of identity, which is the main goal of their lives failing this; there would be depression, frustration and self withdrawal. Children at this period must be encouraged to subordinate their childhood behaviour to a new kind of self identification, which is only achieved through competitive apprenticeship. They should be cheered to face the challenges of life more seriously devoid as playfulness and youthful exuberances. The teacher should encourage and aid them make rational decisions with "increasing immediacy and commitment". The adolescents should be counseled on career options that would lead them to develop their self identity as the biggest commitment of person's life rather than the gratification of other subordinate children desires. Any delay in taking rational decisions and following it up with commitment would lead to what Erikson calls "Psychosocial moratorium", leading to the loss of sense of identity, the acid of self disdain.

5(a):
(i) Visual Acuity:
A number of other factors may account for visual impairment at adulthood (refractive errors, accident, muscle, impairment, diseases, cataract, glaucoma, etc) Aging is the most critical factors. More and more of adults need reading glasses for near vision on with increasing age and have difficulty seeing in weak light and in the periphery of vision due to loss of red cells in the retina after middle age.

(ii) Sense of Taste:
The sense of taste for human beings remain much intact into late life though many adults often report that food tastes more bland (less palatable). This is because the sense of smell declines with aging.

(iii) Reaction Time:
Reaction time measures the times internal between receiving a stimulus and reacting between receiving a stimulus and reacting to it. Reaction time increases from early childhood, reaches its maximum at about 18 and then significantly decline beyond 40s.

Hick (1952) discovered that the reaction time increases proportionally to the number of possible responses until a point at which the responses time remains constant despite the crease in possible responses (Hick's Law)

5(b):
The mental characteristics of an adolescent's student can be ameliorated by a teacher in the following ways.
(i) Teachers, as much as possible, should expose adolescents to rich experiences. This enables them to see challenging situations. For example, adolescents would like to watch a court proceeding instead of a lecture on the concept of justice.

(ii) Adolescents should be taught through problem solving approach. Teacher might ask, for example, if you become a commissioner for finance in your state, suggest ways of generating new revenue for your state. The students will enjoy such assignment.

6(a) The period of adolescence is termed the "crisis period" with its attendant stress and conflicts which are exhibited in different forms of worries and concerns. According to Erik Erikson's theory of identify formation for adolescents, crisis period is a period of intense biological, physical, emotional and intellectual transformation among adolescents.

Most psychologist see the period as the time of conflict, stress, defiance and emotionality. A lot more psychologists regard it as a cascade of passions and the reawakening of instinctual drives that must be met failing which conflict and other emotionality tendencies would pervade the entire conscience and actions of the adolescents.

Thus, it will be safe of opine that adolescence is a spanning period of transition between the ages of 12 to 22 years from childhood to adulthood characterized by myriads of complexities resulting from the physical changes that could lead to maladjustment among adolescent if not properly handled by the school and the society at large.

6(b)
Implications of crisis period to learning include:
(i) Teachers/parents/other adults should give the adolescents some degree of independence;
(ii) The importance of adolescent nutrition should give the adolescents some degree of independence;
(iii) School must support the attainment of developmental tasks of adolescents;
(iv) School curriculum should allow time for resting, relaxation for adolescents;
(v) Handling of adolescents sexual needs by the school.

(i) Teachers/Parents/Other Adults Should Give The Adolescents Some Degree Of Independence:
Teacher, parents and other adults should respect adolescents' desire for independence by giving them less common and encouraging them to follow rules on their own initiatives. Students should be allowed more opportunities to participate in organizing their own learning activities. They should make students realize that while physical appearance is important, it is not he only quality that is should be emphasized. Responsible behaviour is also very important.

(ii) The Importance of Adolescent Nutrition Should Give The Adolescents Some Degree of Independence:
One will notice that adolescents eat much more than others that are not adolescents like fully grown adults of children. The reason attributed to this is that adolescents need extra nutrition to sustain their rapid growth rate. Therefore, nutritional needs of adolescents should be adequate and balanced, if the teachers expert good academic performance from them.

(iii) School Must Support The Attainment of Developmental Tasks of Adolescents:
It is imperative for school to support the attainment of development tasks of adolescents if the adolescents are to completely adjust and become successful in their adult life. For example, it is important for schools to incorporate things like preparation for family life and career counseling in school curricula.

(iv) School Curriculum Should Allow Time For Resting, Relaxation For Adolescents:
The curriculum of the school should allow time for resting, relaxation and recreation for their fast growing bodies to recoup. Rapid that certain strains may be imposed on the young persons resulting in restlessness and fatigued if adequate rest, relaxation and recreational time is not allowed.

(v) Handling of Adolescents Sexual Needs By The School:
School has great responsibility to help the adolescents know how to handle their sexual needs and understand the changing development of their sexuality. The school can organize sex education, which could incorporate courses from biology, health science, health education, religious, moral education and guidance counseling.

================================================================
YEAR: 2012 - DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY PDE 702
TIME: 2 HOURS
================================================================

General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) Define the concepts 'growth and development'?
(b) Identify the relationship between growth and maturation?
(c) Discuss three principles of growth and development?

2. Discuss exhaustively how heredity and environment can affect a child's growth and development.

3. List and discuss elaborately five factors that affect pre – natal development?

4. Examine the Significance of Eric Erikson's Psychological theory of personality development?

5. (a) List five important emotions manifested by school children?
(b) Discuss two of them
(c) Identify the implications of the two (in 5b) for teacher's effective performance.

6. (a) Who is an adolescent?
(b) List and discuss five needs of the adolescent and how they can be met?

(a) Growth refers to quantitative changes in an organism. This usually involves permanent increase in size and structure of organisms. These quantitative changes are both physical and mental. These include physical change in height, weight, girth, internal organs and mental changes in memory, reasoning, perception and creative imagination. The quantitative changes in height, weight, birth, etc are as a result of multiple cell divisions called mitosis.

Development refers to qualitative changes in an organism. It is a progressive series of orderly and coherent changes in human beings. Development can be described as a complex process of integrating many structures and function in an organism.
The qualitative changes that come upon an organism are as a result of the accumulation of experience. The experiences derive from hereditary and environmental influences.

(b) Growth refers to the quantitative changes in an organism while maturation refers to progress towards maturity or adulthood. It is the process of gradually bringing the various psychological (growth) and psychological (development) features to full development in readiness for adult social participation (Ibeh, 1990).

Thus, in order for the individual to survive, the biological features of human beings must mature first and start functioning adequately. These are followed by psychological capabilities such as attitude, interest, personality, and self concept. Thus, maturation cannot occur without growth and growth cannot occur without maturation. This means that growth goes along with maturation.

1 (c):
(Repeated Question, 2013, No. 3 (b)).
Note: Choose any three answers.

The child is a product of both nature and nurture. This implies that the hereditary factors interplay with the environmental factors to determine how the child grows and develops.

Hereditary mechanisms starts in this way – when the sperm fertilizes the ovum, all the characteristics inherent from his/here parents and grow parents are set. After fertilization nothing can be changed except by accident. According to Thompson and Rables, "Every individuals supply of genes, the carriers of hereditary factors is given him/her once and for all in alternation at conception".

At conception, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, one half from the father and the other half from the mother (46 chromosomes from both sides). These make up everything that determines the heredity of the child.

There are specific traits which are transferred from parents to their off springs. These are:
(i) Physical Features: Children are very often like their parents and grandparents.

(ii) Intelligence: For example, twins especially identical twins under normal circumstances are alike intellectually.

(iii) Disorders: For example, sickle cell anemia is an inheritable sickness in our environment.

(iv) The rate of development: Generally, a child that is kept in crawling will tend to be past in walking and in many other aspects of physical development.

(v) Blood Type: Blood type of parents is often able with their children.

(vi) Sex – Related Traits: For eg. Boldness, colour blindness and Hemophilia are transferable.

Environmental influences are those factors which affect the individual after the moment of conception. These environmental factors which are grouped that affect the child's growth and development are discussed below:

(i) Pre – Natal Factors: These are factors in the womb which can influence growth and development which can affect the child positively or negatively.

(ii) The Family Members: The family has a very strong and long lasting influence on the developing child. Whether he is fat or thin depends on how much he is given to eat. His value depends on the family, his relationship with people outside his home, etc. Also age mates and friends influence the behaviours and the development of children.

(iii) Institutions: For eg. School, Church. Mosque, Media (Radio, Television, Newspapers, etc) influence some aspects of the child's development.

(iv) The Physical Environment: For eg. The conditions of a place affects the health and subsequently all other aspect of a child's development, i.e, the type of food and drinking water present. Also facilities for learning exercise and interaction also affect development is there space for exercise and are there play materials.

(Repeated Question, 2014, No 3(b)).

Erikson's psychosocial theory states that any psychological phenomenon must be understood in terms of the interplay of biological, behavioural, experimental and social factors.
The significance of the stages he developed are discussed below:

(i) Birth to 1 Year (Trust Vs Mistrust)
The experience here is in terms of childcare, maternal relationship and true affection, etc. The child at this stage needs to be granted these basic needs consistently and continually. If on the other way round, inadequate and in consistent care is shown to the child, there would be a growing mistrust, fear and suspicion in the perception of the world by the child. Hence, parents especially mothers with whom the child first identifies should develop close intimacy with their children. They must provide the protection, affection and gratify those basic needs of the child so that the child perceives the world as a dependable and safe place for existence.

(ii) 2 To 3 Years (Years of Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt)
According to Erickson, children should "be encouraged and allowed to do what they are capable of doing at their own pace and in their own way but with judicious supervision by parents and teachers, pointing that this will aid their sense of autonomy. Shame and doubt would inadvertently erode the child's life of there is a failure in the gratification of these needs.

It is therefore expedient to stress that not all children at this stage are placed under the care of school teachers. The working mothers would rather employ the services of nannies that are ill – informed about children's needs at this particular age. The mothers themselves are supposed to know the importance of this stage of children's life in the development of their personality

(iii) 4 To 5 Years (Initiatives Versus Guilt)
This stage is very crucial in the development of children's initiatives. The most important activities that children would like to be involved at this stage are physical activities and using language to set their initiatives. Children are too playful at this stage and can mimic words that they even do not necessarily understand. They should not be rebuked for taking part in these activities if in school, teachers must answer their questions. Learning materials that children will play with are essentially required to aid the development of children's initiatives.

Teachers must make concerted effort at using activity centred approach in their teaching. The feelings of guilt must be minimized through de – emphasizing jealous tendencies by not comparing children activities.

(iv) 6 To 11 Years (Industry Versus Inferiority)
The stage represents the elementary and primary age in the life of children. It is characterized by children's intellectual curiosity and performance. Children would like to be recognized for producing things, which will make them achieve some sense of industry. They need encouragement to do things and be praised for achieving results. If their efforts are unsuccessful, or if they are derided or treated as bothersome, inferiority results and this will have an everlasting consequence o their personality.

Teachers must develop the industrious tendencies among their pupils by giving them enough opportunities and encouragement to experience "pleasure of their work". They should be challenged with variety of assignment and protects that are described in terms of specific objectives. The children must be giving tasks commensurate to their levels to be undertaken at their own rate with remedial instructions at the realization of any difficulty.

(v) 12 To 18 Years (Identify Versus Confusion)
This corresponds to the puberty and adolescence period of life. It is the most delicate and presents itself with variety of development tasks. It is a period of intense biological, physical, emotional and intellectual transformation among adolescents. Their main goal in life is the development of identity occurring form "confidence of sameness and continuity".

Teachers should help adolescents integrate their roles in different situation so as to experience continuity in their perception of themselves. This will develop their identity, which is the main goal of their lives. Failing this, there would be depression, frustration and self withdrawal. Children of this age must be encouraged to subordinate their childhood behaviour to a new kind of self identification, which is only achieved through competitive apprenticeship. Teachers as well should encourage and help them make rational decisions with "increasing immediacy and commitment".

(vi) Intimacy Versus Isolation (Young Adulthood)
Adulthood starts from the years following adolescence period. It is characterized by continuous insistence on identity and eagerness to use it with others in the same age group. If they achieve the goal of this stage, they fare successfully, otherwise they become isolated.

Teachers have the duty of encouraging students to accept their personal appearances and urging them to select short term goals in the face of threatening carrier choices. The worth of students should be recognized and their inconsistent behaviours tolerated and constructively refined.

(vii) Generativity Versus Stagnation (Middle Age)
This stage is essentially poised at "establishing and guiding the next generation". None realization of the goals of this age results in stagnation and self absorption. Teachers have little or no role to play in this as must middle age people have either accomplished their developmental tasks successfully or failed to achieve the goals of this stage. Those that have failed can hardly remediate the loss, but to reluctantly accept their fate.

(viii) Integrity Versus Despair (Old Age)
This is the end of Erickson's hierarchy of personality development. The stage is particularly concerned with integrity seeking. It is the stage of self actualization. Despair is the resultant consequence of failing to realize the goals of this stage/phase.

5(a) Five important emotions manifested by school children are:
(i) Sadness (unhappiness); (ii) Anger; (iii) Love and affection;
(iv) Happiness; (v) Sympathy.

5(b)
(a) Anger: This is a learned response to environmental stimuli. It is social in nature. The fundamental source of anger is the disruption of co-ordinated cerebral activity. Fight and aggression are two different models of reaction to anger. They tend to maintain a balance. The following may arouse the emotion of anger:
(i) Teasing by teachers, parents, elders and peers, insulting remarks
(ii) Being unfairly treated
(iii) Frustration of one's plan, etc.

(b) Love and Affection: The emotion of love is a very important emotion to all human beings. It is the result of consequences of physiological disturbances. The emotion of love and affection develop from the very infancy in the life of the organism. In nfancy, love and affection develop for concrete objects of the environment, whether animate or inanimate. In adolescence emotion of love and affection is associated with people. Children loves are not sexual in nature but in adolescence love becomes a source of pleasure.

5(c) Implications of emotional development for the teacher are examined below:
(i) Children should be highly motivated. This can be done by giving them new tasks to perform but they must be related to the pupil's level of maturity.

(ii) The children must be emotionally involved in the class room activities by making them to appreciate the need of learning new tasks.

(iii) The use of appropriate incentives like verbal praises, 'fine', 'good' and sometimes rewards like sweets are capable of arousing the pupil's self esteem and prestige.

(iv) Any new learning task must be related to the cultural background of the pupils.

(v) The teacher's treatment of a particular child might spread to other members of the class for e.g. If a teacher scolds or gives corporal punishment to a child, others might be afraid not to say something out of fear they might equally be punished. This will affect the other children's desire to learn.

6(a) An adolescent is any person whose age lies between the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood.

Bair, et al (1975) construed adolescents to the making of both biological and social process.
Ozigi, et al (1978), opined an adolescent to be any person that lies between late childhood and the beginning of adulthood experiencing "a physical, emotional and Mental process influenced by a number of factors among which Aare nutrition and environments.

6(b) Needs of Adolescents includes:
(i) Need for independence;
(ii) Personality need of the adolescents;
(iii) Need for achievement;
(iv) Need for a satisfying philosophy of life;
(v) The physical need.

(i) Need for Independence
Teenagers want to be free from parental restriction. They would want their space at home, they would want to keep their own things plan their activities and to a good extent take their own decisions.

Adolescents would like to run their lives and would resent parents coming to school to inquire about their progress. Thus, adolescents normally think the inquiry means they are not able to take care of their own affairs. They will not want to be "over protected". Adolescents who are treated as young adult tends to display some adult responsible behaviour.

(ii) Personality Need of the Adolescents
This comes after the physical needs. These are needs for status, independence, achievement and a satisfying philosophy in life. Status is very important, especially among their peers. They do not want to be recognized as children any more. The secondary school teacher who wants to catch the attention of students should realize this need by treating the students as young men and women and not children. In turn, they should also be encouraged to behave as responsible young adults.

(iii) Need for Achievement
Everybody at times does something worth commending. That particular act should be recognized, slow learners and those not interested in school, should be praised when they do something good. Reward instead of punishment is a great motivating device in producing learning and disciplined behaviour. Remedial assistance should be given to each and every student to enable them realizes their worth and work towards achieving greater heights. Every effort must be made by the school to eliminate redundancy among students as this would be a barrier against achievement.

(iv) Need for a Satisfying Philosophy of Life
It is during the adolescence period that children develop interest in the meaning of life. They are interested in the truth, ideals and religion. The adolescents will not want gaps about the purposes of life. A satisfying philosophy or set of beliefs tends to provide ease of mind and psychological security. Religious conversions and radical political activities at this time are very common. Knowing this, teachers should be able to guide the adolescents to make rational decisions affecting their lives.

(v) The Physical Needs
These needs include food, water, health, security, exercise, rest, sex, temperature regulation and evacuation of waste from the body, etc. these physical needs are very important, without satisfying these needs, one cannot think of other needs. Our hunger has to be satisfied before thinking of learning or other achievement.

The home has commitment for this to the entire family members. Every young adolescent must be guaranteed these basic necessities of life. Most maladjustment cases are partly because these needs are not satisfied. The school should address this by organizing local seminars during PTA's to sensitized parents on the need to provide for all these and the repercussions for failing to do so. Where boarding facilities are providing by the school, care must be taken to guarantee those basic necessities of life by the school, failing which crisis looms in the schools. A lot of crises have taken place because of the failure school managements of address this vital need of the adolescents.

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YEAR: 2013 - DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY PDE 702
TIME: 2 HOURS
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General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. Discuss any five (5) development tasks recommended for secondary school students by Roberts Harvighurst. (25 marks)

2. (a) Define the term 'Developmental Psychology'? (5 marks)
(b) Explain any four (4) uses of developmental psychology to the classroom teacher? (20 marks)

3. (a) With examples, distinguish between growth and development? (5 marks)
(b) Discuss five (5) general principles of development and explain their implications for teaching and learning? (20 marks)

4. (a) Discuss any five (5) factors for the individual differences in children? (10 marks)
(b) Discuss any five (5) ways teachers can cater for individual differences among their children? (15 marks)

5. (a) Define 'Personality'? (5 marks)
(b) Discuss any five (5) factors affecting personality development? (20 marks)

6. Critically examine any five (5) developmental tasks of adolescence and their implications for classroom instructions? (25 marks)

Five (5) developmental tasks recommended for secondary school students (adolescents, aged 13 – 18 years) by Robert James Harvighurst (June 5, 1900 – January 31, 1991) are discussed below:

(i) Achieving New And More Mature Relations With Age – Mates Of Both Sexes:
The primary goal of this is to learn to work upon girls as women and boys as men, to become an adult among adults, to learn to work with other for a common purpose, disregarding feelings, to learn to lead with dominating.

(ii) Preparing For Marriage and Family Life:
The essence is to develop a positive attitude towards family life and having children and (mainly for girls) to get the knowledge necessary for home management and child upbringing.

(iii) Achieving Emotional Independence of Parents and Other Adults:
This development task enables them to become free from childish dependence on parents and to develop affection for parents without dependence upon them.

(iv) Developing Intellectual Skills and Concepts Necessary For Civic Competence:
The social is to develop concepts laws, government, economics, politics, geography, human nature and social institutions which fit the modern world and to develop language skills and reasoning ability necessary for dealing effectively with the problems of a modern democracy. Individual differences in metal development show themselves principally as differences in acquiring languages and meanings, acquiring concepts and interests/motivation.

(v) Acquiring A Set Of Values And Ethnical System As A Guide To Behaviour:
The goal which is to form a set of values that are possible of realization, to develop a conscious purpose of realizing these values, to define man's place in the physical world and in relation to other human beings, to keep one's world picture and one's values in harmony with each other. Values here mean an object or state of affairs which is desired.

2(a) Developmental Psychology is a branch of psychology which deals with the development, growth and behaviour in human beings right from the time of conception to the period of adolescence when most of the functions of the body become matured. It also deals with the factors (hereditary, environmental and emotional) which determine what a child will become in future.

2(b) Studying the growth and development of the child becomes necessary by the teacher because:
i. The knowledge of the child as he/she is presently will assist the teacher in guiding the child's future. The period of child development forms the formative years. The events of the childhood period and its development trends cast long shadows in to the future. The knowledge of this period will aid the teacher in his important task in shaping future development of the child.

ii. Knowing what happened during the early stages of development of the child will help the teacher to give appropriate remedy to later learning difficulties. The knowledge of developmental, psychology development has been impaired and who will need skillful help and guidance to overcome their difficulties.

iii. A teacher has to deal carefully with a group of students in classroom situation. As there are wide variations in different abilities among the students. Therefore it is very essential to understand the individual difference of students regarding their ability, interest, attitudes and needs at different levels of growth and development. This is achieved through the knowledge of developmental psychology by the teachers.

iv. The knowledge of the assumptions about how child develops and his/her inherent characteristics which gives rise to personality will afford the teacher the opportunity to guide the teaching and learning processes toward optimal performance, understand the child as he/she is presently and also understand what had gone before. This means that the study of developmental psychology makes it easier for the teacher to read, observe and related with the students very well.

3(a) Growth refers to quantitative changes in an organism as a result of permanent increase in size and structure of organisms. These quantitative changes are both physical and mental. These include physical changes in height, weight, birth, internal organs and mental changes in memory, reasoning, perception and creative imagination. The quantitative changes in height, weight, birth, etc are as a result of multiple cell divisions called mitosis. While development refers to quantitative changes in an organism that come upon an organism as a result of accumulation of experience. The experiences derive from hereditary and environmental influences. Development can also be described as a complex process of integrating many structures and functions in an organism, for eg. Development does not only involve the increase in the size of the brain but also its activities (function) as well.

3(b) The five (5) general principles of development include:

(i) Cephalocaudal Growth Patterns:
This principle states that development spread over the body from head to foot (top to bottom). This means improvement in structures and functions come first in the head area, then in the trunk and eg. Region. The organs in the area of the head development first and mature first before the organs in other areas.
Thus, the child is first able to see, hear sound and jingles before using his hands and legs in the meaningful way.

(ii) Proximodistal Growth Pattern:
This principal also describes the direction of development. It states that development precedes from the central axis of the body toward s the extremities, i.e. development proceeds from the centre of the body to outward.
In the foetus, the head and the trunk are well developed before the rudimentary limb buds appear. The arm buds gradually appear and develop into the hands and lastly fingers before his hands and fingers respectively, and can use the latter as a unit before he/she can control the movements of his/her fingers.

(iii) The Principle of Differentiation (Orthogenetic) Principle
This principle does not involve the direction of development. Instead, it holds that development proceeds from simple to complex, from homogenous to heterogeneous and from general to specific.

At conception, the mother egg – cell and the sperm from the father fuse to form the zygote which starts to divide fuse to form the zygote which starts to divide itself into 2 then 4 to 8 up to billion so of cells that form a body, be it circulatory, muscular, nervous or skeletal.

In both mental and motor responses, general activities always precede specific activities. In any postnatal life, the infant can move his whole body but incapable of specific responses.

iv. Principle of Complexity of Growth
Growth is an extremely complex process, it has different collective aspects. It is complex because what happens to one area affects other areas. The effect of this is that it is not easy to specify casual relationships since there can be other causes in other areas. i.e. causes for growth retardation in a child may be traced to reasons other than malnutrition. It may be because of emotional stress, illness, social isolation or physical harm.

v. Modifiability of Rates and Patterns of Growth
The principle holds that growth is natural but the rate and pattern of growth can be modified be various factors and means.

Some of these factors are:
(a) Nutrition and drug taken by the mother;
(b) Environmental stimulation (influences);
(c) Opportunity to learn;
(d) Illness and Disease;
(e) Genetic aspect or absence of some of these factors can retard the rate and pattern of growth.

Implications of the Growth and Development of Principles for Teaching and Learning Processes:

(Repeated Question, 2014, No. 1(b))

4a(i) Differences in Physique and Sex:
There are many differences which are observable in children in terms of their physical appearance and sex. Some children are boys other are girls. At the adolescent stage physical differences among children are greater. Some children are tall others short, some are fat others are slim. Girls may not be able to perform certain physical exercise which boys perform. They may not be as strong as boys. The performance of boys and girls may differ in different subjects, for example, girls may perform better in sewing and cookery then boys, while boys may perform in wood work and blacksmithing than girls. It is also argued that boys excel in mathematics and the sciences while girls excel in arts and languages.

4b(i) To cater for these differences the teacher must pay special attention when teaching girls mathematics and other science subjects. He should make arrangements so that the smaller children sit where they can see the board. During physical education lessons, he shows bear in mind the size, strength and sex of the children when grouping them for exercises.

4a(ii) Differences in Age and Rate of Maturity
This implies that all children in a class cannot perform equally all tasks given to them. Some children may not be mature enough to perform certain physical or mental exercises while some will be capable of doing both. These differences apply not only to the growth of tissues and organs but also to their functions and behaviours. Difference in the rate of maturation obeys the law of readiness which is a function of maturation and stimulation.

4b(ii) To cater for differences in the maturity level of children, the teacher should only introduce concepts, and skills to the children who are matured enough to learn such. The most effective method to determine readiness to learn is to give the child the opportunity to learn and then observe his behavior. If the child is ready he would respond pleasureably to the learning experiences before him. If not ready, it becomes a waste of effort and may result on frustrating the child, to force him to learn. The teacher should make use of teachable moments. This is the optimum time he can introduce and stress any skills you want to teach your children.

4a(iii) Differences In Health:
Children also differ in health; some children inherit weak health potentials from their parents, while others are lucky to inherit very good health potentials. Some are partially deaf or dumb; others have either bad sight, deformed hands or legs. Furthermore, some children are sickly while others are sicklers.

4b(iii) In order to cater for these difference a teacher must make sure that tasks assigned to handicapped pupils are tasks that are feasible given their limitations and should display a lot of understanding, tack and resourcefulness.

The teaching methods should be varied and the teacher should use a lot of teaching aids for the weak pupils. Sick pupils should move at their pace while extra effort to appeal to their senses should be exploited. Medical attention should be sought for the sick ones and periodic check-up for the healthy ones.

4a(iv) Differences in Intelligence
The teacher should bear in mind that intelligence is a factor of hereditary and environment differs among children. Some children are lucky to possess high level of intelligence, while some children are of normal or average intelligence; some are bright or have above average intelligence. The very bright ones are able to learn rapidly and easily. Above all, very bright children have the capacity for creativity and originality. Awareness of these differences in the intellectual ability of the pupils should be noted by the teacher.

4b(iv) In order to cater for difference in intelligence among children the teacher should exercise a lot of patience for slow learners in the class. He should also use a variety of methods for teaching which will involve activities, demonstrations and the use of different senses of the body. Similarly, he should try and make use of different kinds of aids while teaching and as much as possible teach children individually. Above all, the teacher must regulate the teaching to suit the slow learners and also move fast on the basis of individual progress with the bright ones.

4a(v) Differences In Character
Some children differ in disposition; this difference is both genetic and environmental. A child may be a confident child and would grow up as a confident adult. Some children are emotionally stable and are never withdrawn or dull in appearance, while some are emotionally unstable as they may come from emotionally unstable homes where parents fight very regularly. They are never confident of themselves. These children may resort to withdrawing from social interactions which go on in the class.

4b(v) As a teacher, the onus lies on him to remember the differences indisposition and character among the children when he teaches them. He should check and pilot the curiosity or inquisitiveness of his emotional stable children. Answer their questions and give them more challenging tasks. Expose them more to wholesome influences and problem solving situations. For the children who are not emotionally very mature, he should try to be patient with them. They need plenty of love, assurance and encouragement. Stimulate them with simple tasks which they can perform and encourage them as they attempt the tasks. Timid ones should be shown areas where they excel more than their counterparts to instill confidence.

5(a) & (b): (Repeated Question, 2014, No. 4 (a) and 4 (b)).

(i) Achieving Masculine and Femine Roles:
Adolescents most know how to dress and behave like male and female and adults and be able to perform masculine and femine roles respectively. The implication for the school is that the teachers should encourage participation in related educational fields that emphasized these roles differentiations, for example, Agriculture, Home Management, Health Science, Sports, etc.

(ii) Achieving Emotional Independence From Parents and Other Adults:
For instance, adolescence needs to achieve emotional independence from parents and other adults in order to have a sense of self worth and maturity. The teachers should give self-directed assignments and tasks to the adolescents. The teachers should give them the opportunity to take part in running the school or community affairs. They should challenge to lead certain affairs on the school, society and the family. Formation of clubs and associations with the young adolescents as leaders would significantly help. Adolescents need to be supervised however by the adult members of the society.

(iii) Preparing for Marriage and Family Life:
The most important institution for preparing the young adolescents for family life is the family. Family heads must ensure stability within the family with absolute peace and calmness. Every member of the family must perform their duties credibly and had behaviours met with satisfactions. There must be love and compassion within the family members. Having a stable home is essential in preparing adolescents, who are transiting to adulthood, for setting up a family. Teachers should build on this edifice set by the family members by providing training and arranging family life counseling for both sexes. Guidance on home management and child care to girls, if not to both sexes, can be very rewarding.

(iv) Acquiring Set of Values and An Ethnical System As to Guide Behaviour for Developing An Ideology:
They need to have a set of beliefs and values, which will guide his/her behaviour in life. This is sometimes referred to as a acquiring an "ego – identity". This understanding will afford him to realize the reason why he/she is in this world and his/ her mission in life. Without this, one will be aimless in life. Teachers should act as role models and encourage development of set value, which guide behaviours. All hands must be on desk to insist from the youth the right type of values expected of the young adults.

(v) Accepting One's Physique and Using the Body Effectively:
Here the adolescent must come to accept a smooth transition to adulthood. Adolescents should be made to understand that their physical stature does not matter but how one uses it effectively to excel. Teachers should help them develop positive self image among themselves. They should try as much as possible to bring out in them their inherent potentialities by providing a lot of learning experience to them. They should develop their creative capacities and mental faculties and encourage them to optimize their usage. They should discuss with them their worries and remove all the barriers that would impede on their success in life.

================================================================
YEAR: 2014 - DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY PDE 702
TIME: 2 HOURS
================================================================

General Instructions:
a. This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in all.
c. All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) In any five (5) ways differentiate growth from development? (10 marks)
(b) Discuss five (5) implications of growth and development patterns among children to teachers? (15 marks)

2. (a) Human development is naturally contextual. Discuss? (10 marks)
(b) Examine in clear terms, only five (5) aspects of personality development that are greatly influenced by the person's environment? (15 marks)

3. (a) Explain the term 'uterine environment'? (5 marks)
(b) List and briefly described ten (10) factors that could affect the pre – natal development of a child? (20 marks)

4. (a) Explain the term 'personality' (5 marks)
(b) Discuss any five (5) factors that affect personality development (20 marks)

5. List and briefly explain five (5) factors affecting language development in children (25 marks)

6. Discuss five (5) importance of pre – natal stage of development of the child to the class room teacher (25 marks)

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END OF DOCUMENT
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INITIATION
This is the process of introducing a new member into the
membership of a society to internalize their practices, norms,
rules and regulations, The activities involved in the process of
initiating are usually gradual and are aimed to develop the
individuals mind and body. Education also involves some
elements of initiation as individuals are introduced into certain
generally accepted knowledge, ideas and beliefs, Education
involves others agencies like the home, the age grades, cultural
societies, the school and the religious movements. All these
agencies practice initiation in one form or the other. Initiation is
usually for the benefit of the individual and the society. The
uninitiated cannot actualize himself or herself in the society and
contribute meaningfully to the growth of that society. In the
schoo! setting, all cases of orientation, induction and
matriculation are forms of initiation.

TRAINING

Training is a process deliberately planned to impart into someone
skills in the performance of an operation. Efficiency in the
performance of a given task is usually the aim. The task may be
mental or physical. Training does not require the individual to
understand the underlying principles or the discretion to use
those skills or not. it is specific , limited and narrow in direction.
Training can therefore not be equated with education, However,

119

it is one of the processes at educating. Thus, physical traininc
exercises the muscles while mental training exercises the mind
In the school system, rote learning through recitation of poems,

etc, is training the mind and Physical education trains the
muscles.

INSTRUCTION

Instruction is the process of building into the mind the kno
of facts, relations, rules Or principles of one kind or another
This could be done through verbal, written or other non verb

expressions. The instructor is usually taken as one who has th

Indoctrination involves the use of non rational means in an
attempt to impart unquestioning commitment to the truth o
certain improvable claims with the intention of making them stick.
Indoctrination thus involves some elements of coercion.

Indoctrination occurs in the teaching of absolute moral vaiues, for
€.g., truth, justice, purity, teaching of religious beliefs, political
ideologies like democracy, communism and socialism.

A teacher that attempts to inculcate into the minds of his pupils

his own value system, beliefs, attitudes and ideas js
indoctrinating. This should not be encouraged. The teache:

120

should encourage and enhance freedom and intellectual integrity
in the classroom.

SCHOOLING

It is true that schooling is the process of formal education but it is
not by itself education as the concept is taken to be synonymous
with educating. The aim of the school is to develop a person's
abilities and talents following some prescribed rules, regulations
and curriculum. It is through the school that the society teaches
values, skills, treasured knowledge important to the survival of
society and the individual schooling is an essential process to
education but still it is not education. The school is the most
organized and systematized institution which brings pupils
together for the purpose of educating them.

QUESTION 2 .

Explain the term “behavioural objective”
discuss any five(5)characteristics of behavioural objectives.

2(a). The Term Behavioural Objective

Behavioural objectives are what the teacher expects that the
pupils should be able to do by the end of the lesson as evidence
that the desired leaming has taken place. The emphasis here is
that, these objectives or what the teacher hope the pupils to learn
are in relation to a given instruction or lesson. Hence, they are
often referred to as instructional or lesson objectives. These may
include knowledge of some concepts, facts or information and
competence in the application of some principle derived from the
lesson. Other related out comes or results from instructional
objectives include the development of certain attitudes, values
and aesthetics or application. The objectives of a lesson or an
instruction are stated in terms of pupil’s behavior. In this way the
teacher become very specific in terms of the changes you want

121

2(b).

(ii) Clarity: {It is very important

i's behavior. Thus, they are referred to as
meee lie They are behavioural in the sense that
the objective specifies observable and measurable actions or
actions or actives of the pupils. These actions or activities may
take the form of naming, listing, writing, drawing, defining,
explaining, describing. stating, calculating, etc. These are actior
verbs which, when used to state objectives of lessons, produce
acceptable behavioural objectives. For example, by the end of
the lesson on the occupaiions of the Binis, pupils should be able
to:

(i) define the term “occupation”;
(iif) ideniify at feast three major occupations of the Binis; and

(iii) give at least three reasons why the Binis are known for a
named occupation.

The behavioural nature of the above objectives is that, they
specify clearly what the pupils would be doing or performing
during and immediately after the lesson as evidence that the

desired learning has taken place. The behavioural objectives
emphasize performance.

Five characteristics of behavioural objectives are discussed
below:

(i) Relevance: Behavioural objectives should be relevant to
the topic to be taught. This is important because these
objectives are intended to serve as guide for the teaching

of the topic. They also point to the aspects or scope of the
topic to be taught.

to write the behavioural
manner, This means that
yone to be in doubt as to

objectives in a clear and precise
there should be no room for an
what the objectives impiy. They should communicate

immediately, the intent or what tasks the leamer would be
performing at the end of the tesson.

122

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

Specificity: The most important attribute of behavioural
objectives is that they are specific. Each objective point to a
single task (Performance) and the action verbs in stating it
is such that gives no room for further interpretation. For
example, to calculate, draw, label, arrange, and
demonstrate are precise in their meanings. This precision
helps to remove vagueness ambiguity or a situation in
which a statement may have more than one meaning.
Thus, the teacher is strongly advised never to use such
verbs as to know, understand, see, comprehend, etc, when
writing behavioural objectives.

Measurability: No behavioural objective is worthwhile if it
does not possess the attribute of being measurable. In
other words, it should be such that can be evaluated in
terms of the extent to which it has been attained. It is for
this purpose that behavioural objectives must be stated
clearly, categorically and specifically. For example, it is
possible to measure or evaluated the extent to which a
pupil can draw the map of Nigeria showing the thirty-six(36)
states by asking him to draw it. We can also easily
determine the extent to which he can recite the national
pledge by being asked to recite it at the end of the lesson.
This would be more measurable than trying to find out how
much they have understood the National Anthem. These
objectives cannot easily be measured or evaluated within
the classroom setting.

Pupil-Centredness: The teacher does not teach purposely
to just how much of the subject-matter he knows. Rather,
the focus of teaching is the pupils, that is to help them
acquire certain desirable skills, knowledge, attitudes, and
capabilities and so on. Hence, the behavioral objectives
must be stated in terms of observable pupil's behavior, In
other words they should be statements of what the pupils

123

would be doing and not what the teacher intend to do for
example, it is more appropriate to have behavioural
objective stated as follows. By the end of the lesson, the
pupils should be able to draw the map of Nigeria; instead o!
by the end of the lesson the teacher should be able to help
the pupils draw the map of Nigeria. The first statement is
pupil's —centred in that, it focuses on what task the pup
would be performing by the end of the lesson. The seconc
is teacher-centred in the sense that it focuses on the task
the teacher would be performing and so is not behavioura
objective.

3(a). Discussion method refers to the method of instruction (teaching)
which gives the pupils an opportunity to express their views,
ideas or opinions orally, verbally on content issues among
themselves and being moderated by a teacher.

In discussion method, the teacher gives the students a proble
to solve which they carefully consider the topic, argue among
themselves in a democratic manner, suggest solutions and dra)
conclusions. Sometimes, a short discussion among the studen*
may take place as a part of lesson in which another method
dominantly used. This may be an exercise or a form |
reinforcement, In using the discussion method, the teacher fir
of all considers the topic. He should ensure that the topic has r
clear-cut answer but can be view from various angles. The top
chosen, should be at the students’ level and also the type the
are familiar with. The teacher may group the students (discussic

124

group) in three forms, i.e the whole class, small groups or the
panel. Kochhar (1985) identifies two major types of discussions
which are formal and informal. Informal discussions are governed
by pre-determined set of rules and it includes debate, panel,
symposium etc, while formal discussions may involve the whole
group or small groups of students divided with the intention of
discussing themes.

Finally, at the end of the presentation, the topic is thrown open to

the class fer comments. The teacher or whoever is chosen as the

“moderato;' summarizes the point made and he draws the

conclusions. Whatever grouping is used, the following

democratic principles should be emphasized.

i. Each student should talk only when he is asked to.

ii. | They should learn to listen to and respect the views of
others.

iii. | There should be no personal or verbal attack during or
after a discussion.

. Advantages of Discussion Method of Teaching inciude:

(i) Students learn from each other (participation by
everybody);

(ii) _ it gives the students the training in respecting others views
development of democratic of a thing; and

(iii) it gives the student training in looking for fact on their own
(training in reflective thinking)

(i) Students learn from each other. In this method, every
student participates in the discussion, and therefore thinks
and expresses himself. This is a sure way of learning.
Because discussion is students centred, it provides an
opportunity for pupils to learn from each other, thus,
encouraging team work.

(ii) It gives the students training in respecting others
views. Every student cooperates in the discussion, and the
ideas and opinions of everybody are respected. Thus there

125

is a development of democratic way of thinking arid arriving
at decision,

(iii) Training in reflective thinking. Discussion method gives
the students training in working for facts on their own.
Students, during the course of discussion get training in
reflective thinking, which leads to deeper understanding of
the historical problem under discussion.

DISADVANTAGES OF DISCUSSION METHOD OF TEACHING.

i, All types of topics cannot be taught by discussion method. It
cannot be used in all topics in all subjects, particularly in
mathematics and the sciences it is useful mostly in the arts and
the social sciences, for eg, history, etc.

i. Some students may not take part while others may try to
dominate. Discussion method of teaching is easily dominated by
the out spoken students, this means that the brighter and vocal
students may find it as an avenue to show off, so also do the
weak or shy students find it uneasy to argue convincingly in the
group.

iii. Unlike the lecture method, it is not ideal for a large class. This is
because it is time consuming in reaching the objectives of the
lesson unlike the lecture method. Further it is also not ideal for
teaching small children,

4a. Four (4) learning problems in children include:
(i) Physical handicaps.

126

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Lack of attention and concentration,
Absenteeism and lateness
Menta! retardation

Four way to cope with children include:

(i)

(ii)
(iil)
(iv)

Effective sitting arrangement;
encouragement and counseling;
variation in learning experience; and
psychiatric treatment.

Effective Sitting Arrangement. As soon as the teacher
identify a child with hearing difficulty, he should make sure
to sit the child in front of the class. In this way, he would be
able to hear most of what you say in the class. Similarly, on
identifying those who cannot see far-away objects clearly,
make them sit in front of the class. Those who cannot see
close objects clearly should be seated behind the class.
This may help them, to cope with learning.

Encouragement and Counseling. For the child to get out
of dependence, he needs to have faith in his own ability,
The teacher should try and get this into his head that he
can do .most things. Make the child believe that he
possesses the capabilities for working on his own, You
should follow this up by providing him with the opportunities
for demonstrating his potentials and initiatives. For e.g., the
use of simple exercises. Also, what the child needs in order
to become more attentive in the class is counseling. The
teacher should try to find out why he is restless and
inattentive. If the cause of the problem originates from the
home, you may need to speak with his parents or
guardians to make them realize the need for conducive
home environment for the child's progress in learning, The
child himself should be made to realize that paying
attention in the class helps him to achieve something, that
is, knowledge which is important for his future prospect.

127

ye

5(a).

The teacher may use cases of school drop-out to show the
effect of inattentiveness in the class.

iii, Variation in Learning Experiences. A child may have got
tired or bored by your way of teaching. You may have to
vary your teaching methods and provide varied learning
experiences like story-telling, drama, singing, games and
so on to revitalize or refresh the child's interest and desire
to learn. You may use the parent-teacher association as a
means of talking to the parents not to over burden children
at home. They should be made to realize that children
needs good food, clean and wel| ventilated room and
above all sufficient rest at home. These make them strong
and lively in the class.

iv. Psychiatric Treatment. There is littie or nothing by way of
medical treatment a teacher can do for a mentally retardec
child. The most he can do here is to identify him for
reference to the psychiatric specialists for possible medica
assistance.

Record in schools are official documents, books or files
containing essential and crucial information of actions and events
which are kept and preserved in the school office for utilization
and retrieval of information when needed. Such records are kep'
by principals, teachers, counselors or administrative staff, hence
the purpose of record keeping and management is to ensure that
accurate and proper records of students achievement anc

128

growth, information on schoo! activities and matters that will
promote efficiency and effectiveness of the school system are
kept.

According to Durosaro (2002), records are vital tools for effective
planning and administration of a school.

Egwunyenya (2005), suggested that not all information can be
considered as records until they satisfy such characteristics,
genuinty and authenticity, that is the information that records give
must be true correct, and original records must be
comprehensive, available, accessibly and secured. School
records are grouped into statutory and non-statutory records.

Example of Some Records with their Importance is
Enumerated below:

The Attendance Registers.

This register is supplied by the schoo! proprietor to as many
Classes as there are in the school. Each class has one. It is
marked on resumption in the morning and after the long break in
the midday.

IMPORTANCE OF ATTENDANCE REGISTRATION.
i, lt shows the number of pupils present and absent each
day.

ii, It helps to include the spirit of regularity and punctuality in
the mind of the pupils.

ii. It is used to give the parents the information as regards the
regularity and punctuality of their children in school. This is
known when the records in the register are transferred to

the terms report.

129 =

iv. It helps the teacher to know when a pupil is absent and be
able to check for the reason(s), for eg, cases of truancy are
exposed in this way.

V. From the register, statistics of the population, sex and age
of the pupils are given to the ministry of Education of the
state or other interested researchers.

The School Record and Diary.

This type of record contains the following:

The scheme of work, the weekly record of work, list of books
currently in use in the school, the terminal and barely
examination results, and the head masters special note column,

IMPORTANCE
i. The scheme of work to be followed week by week in each
subject is laid out there.

ii. |The amount of work done each week in each subject is
recorded in the diary.

iii. It shows areas of attraction in the scheme if there are any.

iv. The terminal and seasonal results of the class are also
recorded there.

Continuous Assessment Record:
This is a comprehensive record which shows the particulars of
the child as well as his performances, activities and progress
from the day he enrolled in the schoo! until he left.

IMPORTANCE
i, The record contains the year by year physical developme:
of each child.

ii. | The monthly, termly, and yearly academic progress of eac’
child is recorded.

iii. It is now useful for certification and recommendation in later
life.

The Store Ledger/Stock Book.

This record is normally kept by the store keeper in the school,
The store keeper should be supervised by the headmaster who
is accountable to the proprietor of the school, However if there is
no store keeper, the lead-master is to keep the record.

IMPORTANCE
i. The store ledger is important because it is a record of all
the materials in the school.

ii. It assists the head teacher in the maintenance of the school
materials.

iii, {t helps the school proprietor and the head teacher to know
what has been used among the consumable materials and
what is kept. In other words, it helps in stock taking of
materials.

The Cash Account Book.
The cash account book is use to record the income and
expenditure of the school.

IMPORTANCE

i. It is a record that keeps the history of the school.

iii | The reports of inspectors are usually copied into the log
book.

li, It is the record for keeping of important events and
activities in the school. |.e the list of staff for the year-their
names and qualifications, absence from school by staff,
transfer, assumption of duty, inspection, dates of opening
and closing for the term, etc.

131

a.

6. (a) (i)

6 (a) (ii)

6(b)

In the class room settings, resource materials are those devices
which are used to facilitate teaching and learning processes
These materials or devices are used to provide varied learning
opportunities thereby making teaching instructions clearer
understandable and interesting.

Resources in the classroom can be classified into two broad
categories. Those which appeal to the sense of sight are
classified as visual material resources and those which appeal to.
the sense of hearing are classified as audio materials. There are
also those which combine both features and are classified a
audio-visual (A-V) materials.

Five (5) principles to be considered in the choice of teachi
resource materials are:

(i) Visibility; (ii) audibility;

(iii) relevance; (iv) attractiveness; and
(v) simplicity,

Two examples of audio-materials are radio and record player
two examples of audio-visual materials are television a
cinema.

132

“RELEVANCE OF RADIO TO INSTRUCTION.

i. It is Informative
Pupils get information and news from radio. In this way,
they become aware of what is happening in the state or
country. For example, pupils get to know about most
government policies and programmes on the radio,

ii. The Radio Serves Educative Purpose
In addition to the informal experiences it provides, there are
also educational programmes on the radio. These
programmes are based on selected topics in the major
school subjects like English, mathematics, sciences are
presented by professional teachers in these areas.

RELEVANCE OF RECORD PLAYER TO INSTRUCTION

It is electrically operated. Batteries can equally be used to
operate it. Record player is usual in individualized instruction in
- Study laboratories as well as classroom. It is equally used to
teach a large population of students at once.

RELEVANCE OF TELEVISION TO INSTRUCTION

i. Television caters to the different teaming styles of students
by offering a unique combination of sight, sound, motion
and emotion, which can give students a greater
understanding of the world around them. They can see
historical events enacted, the solar system explored and
novels come to life.

ii. Television is informative, accessible and user friendly,
allowing a programme to be recorded.

RELEVANCE OF CINEMA TO INSTRUCTION.

It combines the effects of both seeing and hearing in teaching
and learning. it has the capability of recreation the past as well
as bringing the distant places and events to the classroom.

133

YEAR: 2011 GENERAL METHODS IN EDUCATION
(PDE 703)

TIME: 2 HOURS
General Instructions:
a, This is a two (2) Credit Course.
b. Answer four (4) questions in ail.
Cc. All questions carry equal marks.

1. a. Identify and explain the six levels of cognitive learning objective.
b. Write one behavioural objective to teach the levels.

2. of. A teacher is a moulder of lives and an embodiment of good
character, Discuss?

3. Define Micro teaching and describe the procedure for using the
method.

4. Write short notes on the following.
(i) The laissez-faire (take-it-easy) teacher.
(ii) | The autocratic teachers.
(ii) | The democratic teachers.
(iv) The authoritarian teachers.

5, (a) Describe the importance of communication in teaching and
learning and explain any four (4) means of improving classroom
communication,

(b) Identify any three (3) causes of noise in the classroom.

6. Identify and explain four (4) causes of learning problems in children,

134

1a.

The six levels of cognitive learning objectives in ascending order
of complexity are:

i. Knowledge; ii. | Comprehension:
iii. Application; iv. Analysis;
v. Synthesis; vi. Evaluation,

Knowledge: The emphasis here is the ability to recail specific
facts in the form in which they have been learnt it does not matter
here whether or not the Pupil understands what he is recalling.
All he is required to do is to remember. This is likened toa
situation common to learning which takes Place at the
kindergarten where children leam to recite rhymes most of which
they may not understand.

Behavioural objectives Stated at this level utilize such action
verbs as the following identity, recail, recite, reproduce, mention,
defined, name, state, etc, for example, by the end of the lessdn
the pupils should be able to recite the national pledge.

6g, after reading through a passage, a Pupil could be asked to
answer a number of comprehension questions based on the
Passage. He could also be asked to report the message or ideas
in the passage in his own words. He could also be asked to give
the meaning of certain words in his own words as used in the
passage.

135

iii.

Behavioural objectives at this level are stated with action verbs
such as explain, classify, select, indicate, summarize, interpret,
illustrate, etc. for example, by the end of the lesson the pupils
should be to summarize the comprehension passage.” Born with
silver spoon".

Application. The point should always be made that any
knowledge which has no bearing with human problems is not
worthwhile. In the same way, acquiring the knowledge is
worthwhile only when the learner has the capacity anc
opportunity to put into use.

in teaching, provision is made. While stating the behavioural
objections for the application of the knowledge or skill derive
from the lesson. This is the level of application in the taxonom
or classification of educational objectives. It involves using th
previous learning in a new situation. For example, one of th
objectives of teaching simple interest is that pupils should
able to calculate simple interest, given the formula. Thus,
behavioural objective stated at the level of application utiliz
such action verbs as, calculate, solve, construct, compute, show

etc.

The behavioural objectives are stated in this way, by the end ¢
the lesson the pupils should be to calculate problems on simp
interest, given the formula.

Analysis. At this level, the anticipated learning is demonstrat
through divergent thinking. It involves considering and weighi
of all facts or characteristics of a given situation or event in or
to throw more light on the subject. For example, for a pupil
fully appreciate the concept of monogamy oF polygamy,
should be exposed to as many facts as possible concern:
them. He would need to know their advantages @
disadvantages from different points of view. It involves acceptir
and rejecting facts at the same time. That is, while he consid

136

Vv.

the merits of a given situation, he at the time pays attention to its
weaknesses or demerits. Analysis also implies isolating the
component parts of a material so that its organizational structure
may be understood.

This may include identification of the parts, and analysis of
relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational
principles involved. Action verbs associated with this level are,
differentiate, contrast, compare, separate, etc.

The behavioural objective at this level is stated, for example, by
the end of the lesson the pupils should be able to differentiate
between solid state and liquid state of water.

Synthesis. At this level, the pupil is required to do a combination
of separate parts, components or elements so that new ideas

_ may be developed. Synthesis is like listening to the views of

different persons on an issue and coming up with a summary of
main point in the argument. It also involves drawing inferences or
making deductions from given observations. For example, Eze
was in Agu's house throughout yesterday, Musa visited Agu. It
follows that Musa must have met Eze. In this way, the pupil is
able to look at the relationship between two or more observable
events and make some inferences which are the new ideas or
those resulting from combination of separate elements. Action
verbs uses at this level are combine, restate, summarize, argue,
discuss, organize, relate, etc.

To state the behavioural objectives in this case, we could have.
By the end of the lesson the pupils should be able to suggest 4
suitable title for the passage read.

Evaluation. This is the last and highest level of cognitive
learning. Here, the pupil is required to make decision, pass
judgment, assess criticize, attack and defend a view or an idea.
This involves divergent thinking and ability to look at issues

137

critically. For example, rather than ask such questions as why do
most people prefer a family of smaller size nowadays, you may
ask is it good to have small family size. This required the pupil to
take a stand from his point of view on whether or not smail family
size is good or not. F
To state behavioural objective in this level, we have, for example,
by the end of the lesson on polygamy, the pupils should be able
to defend or attack with reasons, the practice of polygamy.

Teachers are mouiders of lives and an embodiment of good character
in the following way. A person can be described as a teacher if he/she
is involved in the act of changing human behavior and transformation
of society for better, particularly when their actions render them
perceptibly significant, respectable and recognizable to others because
of the consequences they accomplish and the unique manner they do
them. This implies that a teacher must possess Knowledge and
methods of imparting it that could bring about positive change in the
learner's behavior.

Before one becomes a teacher, he must consciously attempt to receive
training in the art of teaching that will equip him with the requisite
knowledge, skills, techniques, aptitude and methods necessary for the
profession. The teacher, in the course of his teaching, helps to mould
the lives of his students in the following ways:

i. To enable the students acquire, retain and able to use
knowledge.

ii, Help them to fathom, analyze, synthesize and evaluate skills,

iii. | Helps them to establish good habits.

iv. To develop good attitudes.

4

Furthermore, teachers as moulders of lives must be an embodiment of
good character. A good and effective teacher is one who respects the
truth, who is sincere in word and act, and whose personal life sets a
good exampie to his pupils. He must like people especially the young
ones. The teacher with good sense of humour and care for the young
ones instills confidence in the parents that their children are in safe
hands. Students soon get to know the teacher that is sincere and
honest.

Micro-teaching is a technique of training student-teachers (trainee
teachers) in teaching skills in @ manner that the teaching is scale down
in terms of class size, time, task and skill, It could be simply defined as
teaching miniature. It is one of the attempts to simplify the problems of
normal classroom teaching and as well to use the simulation technique
to break down teaching process into smaller and more easily
understood unites.

The procedure for using micro teaching. There are four phases in
sing micro-teaching. These are:

i) Modeling; (ij Teach-record stage;

iii) Play back critique; and (iv) Reteach session.

Modeling: There is the need for a model to be evaluated by
playing back a recorded videotaped or compacted Disc
demonstrating clearly the particular skill or a set of skills by an
expert. The expert must demonsirate a clear understanding of
the particular skills or skills involved. The teacher trainees must
be able to learn from this demonstration however, this
demonstration could also be done by:

139

*

(a) Oral explanations and instruction alone or to complemen?
the video tape.

(b) Written expositions and directions only or to complement
video tape or oral explanation.

(c) Video recording of the master teacher of expect
demonstrating the expected special teaching behavior(s) or
skill{s).

Whichever method or methods adopted, the teacher
trainee should know what is expected of them and why.

Teacher-Record Stage: The student-teacher teaches about fiv
(5) students or his peer for about five (5) to ten (10) minute
imitating the model. The student's attempts are to be recorded cr
video-tape for play back. The student-teacher is to be supervis=
by the supervisor and his peers during the attempts.

Play-back Critique (feedback): Feed back or playback critiqu
in micro-teaching is the reports and criticism a student receiv
about his attempts to imitate certain patterns of teaching.

Thus criticism is based cn the examples of the model, The alm
play back critique is to tell student teacher about “
performances. The criticism is to make him improve his teach
performances.

This criticism can be approached in three ways.

(a) Self-Analysis. This means asking the student-teac
what good qualities and weaknesses he noticed in |
attempt.

(b) Supervisor's Criticism. In this approach, the superv
commends the student-teacher for his good performanc
and advises him on how to improve upon his weaknesses

i)

(c) Analyzing of some aspect of the teaching skill. The
Supervisor calls the attempt for critical observation. The use
of video recording is very important at this Stage. It will
provide the basis for detailed discussion by the supervisor
and students.

(iv) Teach-Reteach. After the criticism or feedback discussion,
the student-teacher is told to put the suggestions into
practice. He is given another chance to teach. The re-teach
mée/ be after a day or thereafter. This means that the
trai.1ee teacher will re-teach the micro lesson in the light of
Suggestions made by your supervisor and colleagues. He
should be encouraged to re-teach his micro lesson by the
fact that practice makes perfect.

The Laissez-Faire (take-it-easy) Teachers: These teachers
care less about the activities of the school. They exert little or no
pressure to see the pupils learn. They have no defined goals.
The teacher's place few demand or controls on the pupils “Do
your own thing” describes this classroom. These teachers accept
the pupils (student) impulses and actions and are less likely to
monitor their behaviour,

The teachers strive not to hurt the pupil's feelings and have

difficulty saying or enforcing rules. If pupils disrupt the class, the
teacher may assume that the student is not getting enough

141

(ii)

(iii)

{iv)

attention. When a pupil interrupts a lesson the teacher accepts
the interruption with the belief that the pupil must surely have
something valuable to add. When a discipline is offered it is likely
to be inconsistent. These pupils are usually loose and without a
guide.

The Autocratic Teachers: They are interested in their pupils ©
and they pay much attention to their performances. The teacher
does not consult with the students or allow them to provide input,
opinion, viewpoints, desires, or need concerming _ their
educational experience. The teacher relates information to the
students who are expected to absorb it as best and all the pupils
must conform. The autocratic style of teaching is also not
typically successful when used with students who are fearful or
resentful or when the students have become completely depends
upon the teacher to make all their decisions and are not capable
of thinking independently. ;

The Democratic Teachers: The democratic teacher is the ope
minded type who listens to the views of his pupils. He has g
human relationship with his pupils. He helps and guides them a
necessary.
The democratic teacher leads and/or facilitates the class whil
allowing students (pupils) to participate in making som
decisions and problem solving for the classrooms needs.

The Authoritarian Teachers: The teachers place firm limit a
controls on the pupils. The authoritarian teachers are the “ir
type” they have no room for any nonsense and are very strict a
harsh.

Furthermore, the teachers prefer vigorous discipline and ex
to swift obedience from the pupils otherwise they will
punished. In this classroom, students need to follow directi
and not ask why. These are poor group of teachers, a teacher

142

not expected to be an unbendable iron or an extremist. A teacher
is expected to build his pupils and not to destroy them.

Communication involves the transmission or transfer of ideas or
information or knowledge or attitude from one person to another
In the class room situation, jt is the teacher communication with
the pupils

Teaching and communication have a number of things in
common, Both involve two parties-one person (the teacher)
transmitting and the other (the pupil) receiving, They both focus
on transmission and their object is to influence some ones e's-
or to cause a change in behaviour or reaction, Teaching! learning
and communication therefore cannot be séparated. In fac!
communication is an essential instrument for teaching. Without
communication, teaching and learning cannot take place.

Think of a situation in which a teacher goes to the class to stand
in front of the pupils without uttering a word or writing on the
ck-board. The pupils keep staring and at the end he would
nave achieved no behavioural objective because he failed to do
something to influence the pupil's behaviour in a desirable
manner. In other words, he failed to communicate. It follow that
effective teaching to take place, there should be effective

iver well understood and also entails the receiver giving a
back or making a response.

143

From the above, one can deduce that teaching fails at times
because of ineffective communication. A schematic diagram of a
classroom communication process is shown below.

Source j Message ep RECCIVEr
(Teacher) (Lesson, Information) (pupil)
Feedback
(Answering questions,
Note-taking, etc)

HOW TO IMPROVE CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION,
(i) Minimizing noise;
(ii) improved speaking ability;
(iii) consider pupils needs, interest, and capabilities; and
(iv) class control.

(i) Minimizing Noise: The teacher should try to minimize
distraction from within and outside the class. Effective class
control is required and attempt should be made to prevent
cars from driving straight into the class room areas of the
school, Where noise becomes inevitable, the teacher
should increase the volume of his voice to suppress the
noise.

{ii) Improved Speaking Ability: The teacher should make
effort to improve his verbal communication skills. He does
this by trying to speak good English language always. He
should try to pronounce words properly and aloud for
learners to hear and understand. At the teacher training
institutions, attention should be paid to adequate
preparation of teacher-trainees in the use of language.

144

-

(iii) Considering Pupils needs, Interest and Capabilities: At
all times, the teacher should have the pupil's level of
development and understanding in mind while teaching so
that he does not use words or concepts far above their
level. In this way the teacher's message may be received
by the pupils.

{iv) Class control has to do with the ability to maintain order
and discipline among the class pupils with the objective of
creating a conducive learning environment by the teacher.
The classroom contro! is much influenced by the teacher's
leadership qualities. The first assignment a teacher has to
do is to bring the pupils under control and to use all
possible stimulating activities to sustain the control as he
teaches. Constant use of questioning and watch full eyes
by the teacher will help to get their listening attention.

Four (4) causes of learning problems in children are:

{i)

fii)
iii)
iv)

Physical handicaps;

dependence;

lack of attention and concentration; and
mental retardation.

Physical Handicaps: When a child is physically handicapped,
he would find it difficult to apply himself fully to the learning
situation, Physical handicaps take many forms including hearing
and sight difficulties. If a child does not hear properly, or does
hear at all the teacher's message will not reach him. As a result,
he cannot respond or make a feedback to show that he has had
some experiences. Sometimes, the teacher will observe that a

145

particular pupil is always restless or looking very straight into the
teachers face in an attempt to hear what he is saying. There
could be others whose parents would be courageous enough to
come to tell you that their child is hard at hearing. Another sign
could be for the child to always turn his ears to the direction
where the sound Is coming from. If they are unfortunate not to
have heard you, learning will fail to take piace as expected.

Another aspect of physical handicap is sight difficulty. A child
may find it difficult to see what is too near to him. Under this
condition, if such a child is seated in front of the class, he is less
likely to see what is written on the chalkboard, The teacher
should remember that the purpose of writing on the chalkboard is
to communicate. If the child cannot see what is written
communication will break down and learning cannot take place
effectively. The same holds for a child who.can only see things
which are near but cannot see those at a distance. Hence, if he
is seated at the back of the class, he will find it difficult to receive
message from the teacher.

Dependence: As a result of the way a child has been brought up
in the home, he may grow up to remain dependent on others ir
whatever he does. If he has been too petted or pampered al
home, there is the tendency that he would always want someone
to do a number of things for him. In the classroom situation, he
may find learning difficult because he has never learnt to apply
himself or use his personal efforts to solve problems, This is
rather common in the African tradition whereby if one happens to
be the only child of the parents, he is over-pampered and hardly
allowed to do a number of things on his own. In the classroom,
such a child does not put in efforts to lear. In fact, trying to leam
means a new life to him which he has to adopt to. Since he does
not possess the needed capabilities, desires and attitude to be
initiative, he would normally find learning difficult. At this stage.

he does not have confidence in his ability to achieve. |

146

YEAR: 2012 GENERAL METHODS IN EDUCATION

(PDE 703)
TIME; 2 HOURS

General Instructions:
a.
b.
c.

This is a two (2) Credit Course.
Answer four (4) questions in all.
All questions carry equal marks.

$$

1.

(a) What does the concept “education” mean.
(b) Write short notes on the following:
(i) Training.
(ii) Drilling.
(iii) Instruction.
(iv) Indoctrination.
Describe fully any five (5) qualities of an ideal teacher

a. _ Explain any four (4) characteristics of behavioural
objectives.

b. What are the functions of behavioural objectives.

Discuss five (5) major barriers to effective classro
communication.

Why is it necessary to evaluate learning outcomes?
a. What do you understand by class control?

b. Examine any five factors that can aid class contro!
class discipline.

(a)
(b)

1(a)

The meaning of education cannot be definite as it means
different tl ings to different people depending on their perception
of what it is. For example, various definition of education by
different educators and educationists are given below.

According to John Stuart Mill (1931) education includes
“whatever we do for ourselves and whatever is done for us by
others for the express purpose of bringing us nearer to the
perfection of our nature. :

Fafunwa, Babs A. (1974) sees education as “the aggregate of all
the processes through which a child develops abilities and other
forms of behavior which are of positive value to society.”

Professor B. O.Ukeje (1973) Says “the process of education
occurs whenever any influence produces a change in the
physical and mental behavior" while Nwagwu (1976) opined that
“education is the process by which every society attempts to
Preserve and upgrade the accumulated knowledge, skills and
attitudes in its cultural setting and heritage in order to foster
continuously the well being of mankind and guarantee its survival
against the unpredictable, at times hostile and destructive
elements and forces of man and nature”

There are cases where education is simply taken to mean
“Knowledge” “enlightenment” or “wisdom” to a common person.
Education, in general terms, is the Process of transmitting
societal lores, values and desirable attitudes from one generation
to another. It seeks to socialize individuals so as to equip them

A(b)i.

with the desired mode of behavior that is in conformity with the
way of life of the society in which they live.

Training: Is a process deliberately planned to impart into
someone a set of skills in the performance of an operation
or a set of operations. Efficiency in the performance of @
given task is usually the aim. The task may be mental or
physical. Training does not require the individual tc
understand the underlying principles or the discretion to
use those skills or not. It is thus specific, limited and narrow
in direction. Training can therefore not be equated with
education. However it is one of the processes at educating
Thus physical training exercises the muscles while mente
training exercises the mind. In the school system, rote
learning through recitation of poems, etc, is training the
mind and physical education trains the muscles.

Drilling: This is another concept that is related to
training andis also used in the process of education
Drilling involves the repetition of simple knowledge
facts, skills or attitude to @ point where it can be
done perfectly and repeatedly without any error. Drilling
is common in the learning of some subjects in the
school — learning of spellings, vocabulary and grammar 7
English Language, dramatization, etc. it is also an essentis!
part of the military training. The flawless performance of 2
given activity is the goal of drilling. Drilling is a useful
concept in education but, is not education in itself.

Instruction: This is the process of building into the min
the knowledge of facts, relations, rules or principles of on
kind or another. This could be done through verbal, writte
or other non-verbal expressions.

The instructor is usually taken as one who has the pre
requisite knowledge and authority to direct others, Thos

150

being directed are passive and at times, as in the mii tary
may not be given the opportunity to air their opinions. it s 2
one-way communication affair.

Because of this, instruction is of limited value in education,
though, it is a necessary aspect of education.

vi. Indoctrination: Indoctrination involves the use of non-
rational means in an attempt to impact unquestioning
commitment to the truth of certain unprovable claims with
the intention of making them stick. It thus, involves some
elermant of coercion.

Indoctrination occurs in the teaching of absolute moral
values, @.g., truth, justice, purity, teaching of religious
beliefs, political ideologies like democracy, communism
and socialism.

A teacher that attempts to inculcate into the minds of his
pupils his own value system, beliefs, attitudes and ideas is
indoctrinating. This should not be encouraged. The teacher
should encourage and enhance freedom and intellectual
integrity in the classroom.

ideal teacher should possess any of the following qualities:

Good Character:

An ideal teacher is a moulder of lives and an embodiment of
good character to his pupils. A good and effective teacher is one
who respects the truth, who is sincere in words and act, anc
whose personal life sets a good example to his pupils. An idea!
teacher must like people especially the young ones. The teacher

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Students,

Kindness and Understanding; A good teacher IS aly
friendly and helpful to his students. Being aggressive does
help the situation as it will only distance the students from
teacher, thus making it difficult for him to fathom their prob
A good teacher always takes interest in his students’ ger:
Personal problems and shows a lot of understanding in assi
fo solve them. He treats any personal Problems of his stud
with utmost contidentiality with a view to snlisting
confidence.

Effective Communication: An ideal teacher does not leave

Firmness: As much as the teacher is kind towards his student
he should be firm in ensuring fair-play and equal treatment to =!
Students are often confused when he changes his rules
frequently. Teachers weaknesses are exposed by his
inconsistency in enforcing rules and acceptable mode of
behavior. Any attempt to show preferential treatment to his

Students will make him lose respect and so lack his Students’
confidence,

Repeated Question: 2010, No,2(b): 2014, No.3(b)

The following are some of the functions of behavioural

ives:

i, Behavioural Objectives Guide Teaching: To a large
intent, the behavioural objectives serve as guides for the
teachers, The objectives dictate to teachers what to
emphasize in the teaching of the subject-matter or topic.
They also suggest the resource materials and activities to
be used in the teaching and learning. As he teaches along,
one thing keeps striking his mind. That is the objectives of
the lesson. In this way, he tries to ensure that every action
he takes and every activity of the lesson are geared
towards achieving the lesson objective.

Without the behavioura! objectives therefore the teacher
will have nothing on which to focus his lesson.

li. They Provide Motivation For Teaching And Learning:
Without the behavioural objectives the teacher may not be
able to relate the lesson to real life or carry all the pupils

iv.

along. It makes the lesson to have purpose, This pur
motivates the teacher.

Furthermore, statements of objectives accommodate
needs of the learners. In other words, the teacher wou
expected to have ail the pupils in mind while stating
instructional objectives. Similarly, the teacher wouic
guided by the desire to see that as many are the pupi
possible attain these objectives.

Behavioural Objectives Facilitate Evaluation and T
Construction:

A lesson begins with some set objectives, the question
must normally arise at the end of the lesson |s there?
the extent to which the objectives have been attained.
measurement and determination of the extent of attain
of specific objectives is referred to as evaluation,
evaluation of the attainment of instructional objec:
cannot be undertaken if the objectives do not pos
certain attributes which them quantifiable or measure
it has been stated in terms of pupil's behavior, evalu
becomes very easy. Therefore, behavioural objec®
facilitate the evaluation of the outcomes or results
instruction.

Since the pupils are examined or evaluated at the e
the term, year or even their course of study, thus
objectives give the teacher an insight into what typ
questions to set for examination purpose.

Behavioral Objectives Make Teaching Child-Cen
Today, the trend of teachers dominating the entire teac
and learning has changed from passive to active lea
whereby the learner himself is practically involved.
child is now the focus of avenues for stressing the pia
the leamer in the teaching and learning process. The we

154

activities are expected to centre around him and this neec
is constantly brought to focus each time the teacher states
instructional and behavioural objectives.

These include the following:

4.

Noise: Ineffective communication may result from some
interference in the pupils’ environment. These may be shouts,
laughter of other pupils, sound from moving cars, shuffling of feet
or chairs on the floor, etc. Any such event in the physical
environment which interferes in the reception of the message is
known as noise. Thus, for a learning situation to be conducive,
there should be no noise. If there are noises, it may distract the
attention of the pupils from listening and disrupt their trend of
thinking. Noise could also cause the source to loose trend of
what he is saying thereby disrupting the trend which would have
facilitated effective learning.

Incompetence in the use of Language: One of the greatest
problems of teaching is that some teachers lack the ability to
express themselves well in English Language which is the main
language of instruction in Nigerian schools. Not only have some
of them not been well grounded or trained in the use of English,
they find it difficult to communicate well in it, not being their
mother-tongue. This poses problem to affective communication.
If the teacher is incompetent in verbal communication skills, then
he is limited in his ability to translate his thoughts, ideas or
intentions into a message that will elicit about feedback. It is very
common to see pupils who find learning difficult because their
teacher lacks the ability to express his thoughts for pupils to
fathom.

155

Deficiency in Listening Skills: A teacher may put in his b
communicate his ideas, intentions and thoughts and yet
pupils are unable to get the message. This arises perhaps
Such pupils do not possess listening skills, Listening is not |
matter of hearing sounds but involves catching the patte
thought and making meanings out of them. It inv,
comprehension. Unfortunately, most children in Nigerian sc

Confusion in Meaning: Certain words or concepts
different things to different people depending on how they
used. For example, the term “Value” may be used to descri
element of people's culture in relation to their concept of
and bad or right and wrong. It can also mean the amount
on a good or the importance or usefulness of something.

When the meaning of a word is not Clarified by the source to
@ particular purpose, communication is likely to breakdown
teacher should note that there is no room for the assumption
people have the same meanings for identical things, as
should always relate the meaning of concepts to Parti
situations so that the pupils can easily understand him.

When a teacher uses words meant for high-school student
infants, his communication may not get a positive feedback.
teacher should use appropriate language level for ve:
categories of pupils in the school,

156

Evaluation of learning outcomes is a procedure or process of
measuring the extent to which the pupils have attained set objectives
for the lesson. It is necessary to evaluate learning outcomes because
of the following reasons:
1. Itis a Measure of the Effectiveness of the Teaching Strategy:
in the absence of evaluation, the teacher may feel that he has
done a successful job and may not be able to explain when the
end becomes a failure. But an evaluation of learning outcome wil!
reveal which of the behavioural objectives have or have not be
attained. The teacher will then ask himself why the lesson has
not been as successful as planned. He may have to re-examine
the adequacy or otherwise of the strategies used in the
presentation. He may also have another look at the teaching aids
and other aspects of the lesson including the physical
environment of the class. These will provide hints for
improvement in subsequent lessons.

It serves as a Source of Encouragement for Pupils: When a
child is successful in tests or examinations or even such school
activities as sports, debates, quiz, etc. he becomes motivated to
achieve more. When a teacher carries out a programme of
evaluation once in a while, he would be creating a situation that
motivates learning in the pupils. When evaluation reveals that a
pupil is not doing well, he is reminded to work harder. Without
evaluation of learning outcomes the pupils might go with a false
appearance of well-being.

It Provides Bases for Guidance and Counseling: Every pupi!
needs to be advised to solve his academic and emotiona’
problems. Without evaluation, the teacher may not know which of
the pupils have academic problems for which they need

157

academic problems for which they need advice. Eva
reveals that emotional problems retard the academic prog
the child. On the basis of this, the teacher can be of help
pupil by helping him to solve some of the problems ¢
counseling. For the successful pupil, he may need guida
to where his subjects of interest will take him to in te
vocation.

It Serves as a Basis for Classification of Pupils: The
practice whereby pupils are kept in classes according to
level of intelligence measured by their level of performa
tests or examinations. For example, the teacher could ha
very bright ones in ciass 4A, the good ones in class 4B 2
average and weak ones in class 4C. This classification is
out to assess the competences of the pupils. They may 6
more hard-working to avoid relegation by way of being plas
streams or arms. of the class below B. hence, it is this
explanation that holds for the use of evaluation for select
candidates, for admission or employment.

it Serves as a Basis for Pupils' Promotion: |t is conve
to promote pupils from one class to the next class at the 4
the academic year. This follows @ form of evaluation by \
examination. In this way, since the pupils know that
promotion depends on passing their examination, the tende
that, most of them may Decome serious with their studies.

It provides a measure of standards: At times govern
becomes sad over students’ poor performance in comp
examinations. Some may threaten to close down schools
consistently perform poorly. They may want to lins
seriousness of the teachers and pupils in the school wit
pupils overall performance in their examinations, Often, a s
whose pupils always do well jn external examinations ter
command more public respect than failure schools. Evaluat

158

way of examination thus, provides means of setting standards for
schools.

Class control has to do with the ability to maintain order and
discipline among the class pupils by the teacher with the
objective of creating a conducive learning. To have a good
control in the class, the teacher has to prepare his lesson
thoroughly, he should be a master of his subject and as well be
active during his lessons which his personality should command
the respect. of his pupils. ;

Factors that can aid class contro! and discipline include any of
the following:

Through Preparation of His Lesson: A teacher who is
not sure of facts or who is shallow in the topic will not abie
to control his class as expected.

ii. Teachers’ Own Personality: This refers to the teacher's
human relationship with the pupils, his physical
appearance, the way he speaks, his temper and
mannerism. A teacher with good personality has the ability
to control his class unlike the teacher that is not capable of
relating with his pupils.